Biosecurity Measures – The First Line of Defence Against Bird Flu

Dr. Sagrika Bhat1, Dr. Sundus Gazal2, Dr. Sabahat Gazal3and Dr. Anvesha Bhan4
1Division of Veterinary Biochemistry, 2,3,4Division of Veterinary Microbiology
and Immunology, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Jammu

Microscopic pathogens, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites, pose significant threats to poultry health, with avian influenza being a major concern due to its high mortality, economic impact, and zoonotic potential. The disease is caused by Influenza A virus belonging to the family Orthomyxoviridae. Influenza A viruses are divided into subtypes based on two proteins on the surface of the virus: hemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N). There are 18 different hemagglutinin subtypes and 11 different neuraminidase subtypes (H1 through H18 and N1 through N11, respectively). The highly pathogenic strains such as H5N1, H7N9, and H9N2 have been reported to cause severe disease. The virus spreads through direct contact with infected birds, contaminated feed, water, and fomites, while wild migratory birds serve as natural reservoirs, enabling global transmission. Highly pathogenic avian influenza can lead to near-total flock mortality, significantly disrupting poultry production and trade. Additionally, zoonotic strains such as H5N1 and H7N9 can cause severe respiratory illness, pneumonia, multi-organ failure, and high fatality rates in humans, necessitating global surveillance by organizations like the World Health Organization (WHO).

Poultry farms constantly face the risk of Avian influenza and other infectious diseases that persist in dust, droppings, and farm waste, making biosecurity a fundamental component of disease prevention. Biosecurity measures serve as the first line of defence, preventing pathogen entry and transmission through stringent hygiene, controlled farm access, and optimized housing conditions. Effective biosecurity minimizes outbreaks of avian influenza, Newcastle disease, duck plague, and bacterial infections such as fowl cholera and mycoplasmosis, which compromise poultry health, reduce productivity, and weaken consumer confidence.

Given the increasing incidence of avian influenza worldwide, including India, strengthening biosecurity is imperative to safeguard poultry health and public safety. Disease prevention strategies must integrate high-quality stock, proper housing, clean feed and water, regular disinfection, and restricted farm access. Additionally, modifying industry practices in poultry production, transport, and marketing is essential to curb disease spread. Veterinary authorities must continuously evaluate and refine biosecurity measures in high-risk areas while considering economic and social impacts. Several biosecurity measures have been implemented or require further revision in Asian countries, including India, to effectively control avian influenza and ensure sustainable poultry production. Above all, biosecurity must be a continuous effort rather than a reactive response to outbreaks.

A well-structured, proactive approach remains critical for preventing disease outbreaks, ensuring industry stability, and minimizing zoonotic risks.

Key Biosecurity Measures in the Poultry Industry
1. Marketing Systems: Live bird markets serve as critical points for avian influenza (AI) transmission due to continuous operation, overnight poultry retention, and the reintroduction of unsold birds to farms. These practices facilitate pathogen circulation. Implementing a mandatory market rest period of 24 hours in a week, accompanied by thorough cleaning and disinfection, is essential to mitigate viral persistence and spread.

2. Species Segregation: Domestic waterfowl and quail act as reservoirs for avian influenza viruses. Their cohabitation, transportation, and marketing alongside other poultry should be restricted to minimize interspecies transmission. Additionally, swine reared in proximity to infected poultry farms are found to be infected with HPAI (Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza) therefore should undergo systematic veterinary surveillance. In cases of confirmed avian influenza infection, culling of affected herds is recommended to prevent viral reassortment and potential zoonotic spillover.

3. Farming Practices: Extensive poultry rearing systems, particularly in village settings, pose a heightened risk for avian influenza introduction due to their lack of biosecurity controls. Strategic vaccination programs targeting backyard poultry can enhance herd immunity. Commercial farms should adhere to an ‘all-in, all-out’ production model to reduce pathogen exposure and poultry workers must adhere to strict biosecurity protocols, including cleaning, disinfecting, or changing protective clothing, equipment, and footwear before entering and after leaving farms.

4. Transport Biosecurity: Transport cages and egg containers should be constructed from non-porous materials such as plastic or metal over wooden cages to facilitate effective disinfection. To prevent environmental contamination and disease spread, bio-secure transport protocols should be implemented. This includes minimizing faecal contamination during poultry unloading, ensuring transport cages are cleaned and disinfected before returning to farms, and using easily sanitized materials for transporting table eggs, fertile eggs, and day-old chicks.

5. Compartmentalization: In regions where avian influenza is endemic, creating compartmentalized poultry populations with distinct health statuses is essential for disease control and international trade compliance. This requires strict biosecurity measures, including traceability of fertilized eggs, certified hatchery and feed sources, vermin control, and regulated transport. Poultry operators must maintain detailed records of suppliers, egg crate circulation, employee responsibilities, and transport activities to ensure compliance and effective disease containment.

Mitigation of Stress through Managemental Interventions
While biosecurity is crucial for disease prevention, stress reduction is equally important in enhancing poultry resistance to infections, including avian influenza. Environmental factors such as high temperatures, ammonia build-up, overcrowding, feed deprivation, handling, and transportation induce physiological stress, compromising immunity. Strategies such as adjusting feeding schedules, providing cool drinking water, supplementing essential nutrients, and optimizing dietary energy and amino acid levels help mitigate heat stress. Maintaining appropriate temperature, ventilation, and humidity is vital for flock health, especially in regions with high heat and humidity. Since wet litter contributes significantly to ammonia production, proper litter management, ventilation, and dietary adjustments are necessary to reduce ammonia levels and support biosecurity measures.

Nutritional Biosecurity Measures
Poultry immunity depends on proper nutrition, as essential nutrients regulate immune cell activity and function. Balanced diets rich in proteins, vitamins, trace minerals, and energy sources are critical for disease resistance. Probiotics enhance immunocompetence by stimulating antibody production, while prebiotics selectively promote beneficial gut bacteria, improving immune function. Additionally, mycotoxins in poultry feed suppress immune responses, making birds more susceptible to infections. Strict feed quality control and mycotoxin mitigation strategies should be integral to biosecurity programs.

Hygienic Disposal of Poultry Waste
Poultry operations generate waste, including dead birds, broken eggs, manure, litter, and contaminated equipment, which serve as reservoirs for pathogens. Proper disposal methods include burial, incineration, rendering, and composting.
Burial is effective but requires a 90-day period for pathogen deactivation before use as fertilizer. Incineration is reliable but often limited by facility size. Open burning is costly and environmentally unfavourable. Rendering is viable if decontamination is ensured, though private facilities may be reluctant to handle infected material. Composting within farm premises minimizes the risk of disease transmission during transport. Additionally, high-risk practices like using contaminated water and recycling untreated poultry waste should be strictly prohibited.

Wild Bird and Vector Control for Disease Prevention
Wild birds, particularly waterfowl, act as reservoirs for avian influenza and other pathogens, and play an important role in introducing infections to poultry farms. Effective biosecurity includes wild bird-proofing quarantine facilities and preventing their access to contaminated areas. Rodent control is equally essential, as rats and mice serve as mechanical carriers of the pathogens. A structured eradication program should minimize their dispersal from infected sites. Flying insects also contribute to disease transmission; thus, integrated pest management strategies should be implemented to reduce their presence in poultry sheds.
Immunomodulation through Nutritional Supplementation and Genetic Strategies
Regular supplementation of vitamins, minerals, and proteins strengthen poultry immunity and should be a core component of modern biosecurity. Nutrient deficiencies compromise resistance, increasing vulnerability to avian influenza and other diseases. As the influenza virus rapidly mutates and can exist as various subtypes and pathotypes, it questions the efficacy of existing vaccines and antivirals, and hence, genetic interventions offer a promising alternative. Screening poultry populations for disease-resistant genes, particularly in native breeds, and incorporating these traits through selective breeding can enhance flock resilience against infections.

Vaccination Strategies for Avian Influenza
Vaccination integrated with biosecurity measures can act as a critical tool for influenza control. Vaccines should provide adequate protection and minimize virus shedding. Vaccination programs coupled with virological and serological surveillance can be used to effectively detect viral mutations and assess vaccine effectiveness. In past influenza outbreaks in Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Madhya Pradesh, India successfully controlled the disease through culling and biosecurity measures. Establishing vaccine banks and enhancing domestic vaccine production are essential for rapid response to outbreaks. Policymakers must decide on vaccination strategies based on epidemiological data and national disease trends.

Strengthening Quarantine and Flock Profiling
Strict quarantine protocols are crucial in preventing disease introduction through newly acquired birds. Newly introduced poultry should be isolated for at least 21 days, monitored for clinical symptoms, and tested (blood, faecal, and nasal swabs) before integration with existing flocks. Beyond farm-level quarantine, strict regulations should be enforced to control cross-border movement of live poultry and poultry products.

Conclusion:
Effective biosecurity is the cornerstone of bird flu prevention and control, serving as the primary defence against disease outbreaks in poultry. Raising awareness among poultry farmers, industry stakeholders, and policymakers is essential for strengthening biosecurity at all levels. Training programs for grassroots poultry managers should be prioritized to ensure the proper implementation of preventive measures. In addition to immunity-boosting strategies and advancements in disease control, continuous surveillance of avian influenza and other infectious diseases is crucial. A proactive and well-enforced biosecurity framework not only safeguards poultry health and industry stability but also minimizes public health risks associated with zoonotic disease transmission. By integrating stringent biosecurity protocols with modern disease prevention strategies, the poultry sector can achieve long-term sustainability and resilience against emerging threats like avian influenza.

Emerging Technologies in Poultry Litter Management: Enhancing Sustainability and Efficiency in Poultry Production

Efficient poultry litter management for broiler chicken farms is essential for maintaining bird health, ensuring farm profitability, and protecting the environment. One key tool in this effort is the Poultry Litter Decision Support System (PLDSS), which outlines a five-step plan for effective litter management. Additionally, a temperature prediction model can aid in litter pasteurization, further enhancing its efficacy. Innovative technologies such as electronic noses and AI-powered robots are being employed to address challenges related to odor control and litter management tasks. Moreover, the use of artificial turf flooring is showing promise in improving air quality within laying hen houses.

Keywords: Poultry litter management, PLDSS, litter pasteurization, e-nose, AI robots, artificial turf flooring

The poultry industry’s phenomenal growth creates a critical challenge: managing the vast amount of poultry litter, a mix of manure and bedding materials. The intricate interplay among the poultry industry’s worldwide impact, technical advancements, and the urgent demand for innovative approaches to litter reduction are significant factors compelling us to consider litter management.

With the United States leading the way in broiler production, the global output reached a staggering 101.2 million metric tons in 2021.This exponential growth necessitates sustainable practices to handle poultry litter efficiently. As the poultry industry continues to expand, effective waste management becomes paramount.
The amount of chicken manure produced globally is astounding. The amount of broiler meat produced in 2021 was estimated to be 101.2 million metric tons; by 2023, that amount is expected to increase to 103.4 million. About 1.1 to 2.4 MT of dry manure, 7.3 to 12.7 MT for turkeys, and 3.9 MT for ducks are produced by 1000 birds raised to market age on commercial farms. 9486 MT of hatchery waste, 1.74 million MT of slaughterhouse waste, and 38.33 million MT of chicken manure were produced in India in 2018–2019. To properly manage the waste from poultry, this exponential growth calls for sustainable practices.

Not only is efficient litter management important for the environment, but it’s also essential for farm productivity and animal welfare. Litter management that is done right enhances bird health, productivity, and profitability. However, poor handling can result in disease outbreaks and significant financial losses.

Poultry Litter Decision Support System (PLDSS)
Applying chicken manure to row crops and pastures is an inexpensive substitute for synthetic fertilizers. Because of the high P to N ratio in chicken litter, applying it in accordance with the agronomic N requirements of the fodder has over time led to a buildup of P in the soil. P runoff can hasten eutrophication, which can seriously degrade water bodies that support aquatic, recreational, and drinking water uses, despite P being a necessary nutrient for plant growth. There are numerous definitions for a DSS. But it can be thought of as an interactive, adaptive, and flexible computer-based information system designed specifically to help identify and resolve a complex, poorly organized, or unstructured.

The Poultry Litter Decision Support System (PLDSS) is a comprehensive five-step management plan that begins by estimating farm-produced poultry litter and compost, assessing their nutrient content for proper application. It then identifies suitable land for spreading, aligns application with crop nutrient needs, and manages excess litter by exploring responsible disposal options. Over time, the PLDSS can create a database to aid research on non-point source pollution and inform businesses about surplus litter for value-added products, offering a holistic view of poultry litter management challenges.

Litter Temperature Prediction Model & Pasteurisation Decision Support Tool
The model was created using a data set that included 542 temperature profiles taken at different depths during a litter pasteurization cycle that lasted six to ten days in about 100 litter heaps that were treated on eight farms. There are more than 90,000 distinct temperature records in the data collection. Using 75% of the data for development and 25% for validation, an empirical model of the dataset was created.

As part of the chicken CRC project Methods to quantify and inactivate viruses in chicken litter, a litter temperature prediction model and a pasteurization decision assistance tool were created. The tool’s parameters are listed in the following. Purpose of this tool is to forecast temperatures and offer user-defined summary temperature data for poultry broiler litter that has been heaped for pasteurization.

A sectional heat map of the heap/windrow at a given time with a table showing the percentage of the heap in different temperature classes, average, minimum, and maximum heap temperatures, the proportion of the heap/windrow reaching specified temperatures and durations, and temperature profiles at specified depths.

Animal Waste Management Software
Software for animal waste management (AWM) is a tool for planning and designing projects that supports the calculations needed for manure management systems. Lagoon, storage pond, storage tank, and stacking facility design is supported by the expected daily production of manure, bedding, and process water. Average monthly precipitation and evaporation statistics are utilized in the AWM methods and computations, which are based on data from the AWMFH. Additionally, the program encourages the design of multiple-cell anaerobic and aerobic lagoons that can be used alone or in conjunction with other manure storage facilities. Users of the program can produce preconfigured reports for design, operation, and maintenance. Design variables that are integrated into the report templates can be used to create customized reports. Manure Master, a streamlined tool for calculating the amount of cropland required to create the nutrients generated by an animal feeding operation, is also included in AWM. The nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium content of the manure and the amount of these nutrients utilized by crops are combined to create a gross nutritional balance that is calculated by Manure Master. This balance can be calculated based on known recommended fertilizer application rates, or it can be estimated based on the nutrient content of the plant. The nitrogen balance is calculated with the expected losses from leaching, denitrification, and volatilization.

Artificial Turf Floor
Artificial turf flooring has the potential to significantly improve the air quality in laying hen houses, according to studies. Artificial turf drastically lowered ammonia, carbon dioxide, and particle sizes when compared to regular wood shavings. The reasons for this progress are several. First off, artificial turf reduces ammonia generation directly by preserving more nitrogen and lowering the pH of manure.

Secondly, by reducing sources on the floor where hens interact, the turf itself lowers airborne particulate pollution. Lastly, it appears that artificial turf affects airflow patterns, which results in a more uniform gas distribution and a decrease in concentration gradients inside the housing. It’s vital to remember that proper comparisons of air quality between various flooring types depend on maintaining stable and regular ventilation rates.

Electronic Nose
Effective poultry litter management involves addressing odor issues associated with poultry waste. Traditional olfactometry, while valuable, can be costly due to sample collection and analysis expenses. To overcome these limitations, electronic noses (e-noses) offer an affordable and real-time alternative. E-noses detect volatile organic compounds (VOCs) linked to odors, providing accurate measurements. Integrating e-noses alongside traditional methods allows poultry farmers to make informed decisions, minimize odors, and maintain a healthier environment for both birds and humans.

AI-Powered Robots for Litter Management
Numerous businesses have created robots to assist in managing the litter in broiler homes for chickens. For instance, Octopus Robots, a French business, has introduced two fully autonomous robots, one of which is intended to turn and aerate chicken bedding. A different business, Metabolic Robots, has developed a robot that can oversee, measure, monitor, and regulate operations on chicken farms. These robots can grind, mix, aerate, tilt, decake, scare, and pulverize poultry litter. The effectiveness of litter management in chicken broiler houses can be increased with the employment of these robots.
The AI-driven autonomous robots are meant to clean the litter in chicken broiler houses. It has a scarifier installed to aerate the litter once a day, preventing crusting and enabling reduced ammonia levels. In the chicken shed, the robot is also capable of gathering data on temperature, humidity, and ammonia levels. AI-powered robots can not only scarify the litter but also carry out other duties like drying the litter, preventing scab development, lowering ammonia generation, distributing sanitizing solutions, and cleaning the litter by misting sanitizing solutions. The robot has the ability to administer local adaptive therapy and disperse itself as near to the target as it can.
Robots using artificial intelligence (AI) are useful and effective technologies for controlling litter in chicken broiler facilities. Their capacity for multitasking on their own can enhance litter control effectiveness and promote a healthier environment for the chickens. Emerging technologies offer a beacon of hope. Precision livestock farming and waste-to-energy processes are just a few examples of innovative solutions that can minimize environmental impact, enhance resource utilization, and safeguard animal and human health.

References :
Sohn, J. H., Hudson, N., Gallagher, E., Dunlop, M., Zeller, L., & Atzeni, M. (2008). Implementation of an electronic nose for continuous odour monitoring in a poultry shed. Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical, 133(1), 60-69.
Ren, G., Lin, T., Ying, Y., Chowdhary, G., & Ting, K. C. (2020). Agricultural robotics research applicable to poultry production: A review. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 169, 105216.
Kelleher, B. P., Leahy, J. J., Henihan, A. M., O'dwyer, T. F., Sutton, D., & Leahy, M. J. (2002). Advances in poultry litter disposal technology–a review. Bioresource technology, 83(1), 27-36.
Kang, M. S., Srivastava, P., Tyson, T., Fulton, J. P., Owsley, W. F., & Yoo, K. H. (2008). A comprehensive GIS-based poultry litter management system for nutrient management planning and litter transportation. Computers and electronics in agriculture, 64(2), 212-224.

By Dr. Shiva Kumar, Director – Technical, TN South Asia

Poultry derived food products are the most important animal protein sources globally. India is the third-largest egg producer and the fourth-largest chicken producer in the world. Poultry meat and eggs are the most important animal protein sources available, and a significant increase is forecasted in demand.

But there is also a significant number of challenges facing the Indian poultry and allied industries with respect to sustainable production of poultry meat and eggs where market demands, and consumer needs will put more constraints on the production systems and methods. These challenges are dynamic and diverse, and solutions and opportunities will require development of appropriate technology, using and advancing our knowledge base.

Sustainable poultry farming is based on three pillars: environmentally sound, socially responsible, and economically viable. For all these pillars, innovation will be key and hence, advances in animal nutrition will play an important role, where we have concrete challenges in economical optimization of the value chain and meeting product quality demands, whilst safeguarding animal wellbeing and human health.

Trouw Nutrition is an organisation that deeply cares about building a more sustainable future – both for our industry and for consumers. We are committed to transform science into actionable, practical nutrition and farm management solutions to help customers produce quality poultry meat and eggs. We support food producers with the technology that puts advice and data at their fingertips.

Feeding the Future is the essence of Trouw Nutrition (a Nutreco company), expressing the challenge to double food production while halving the carbon footprint. Our ambition is to contribute meeting the rising global demand with growing number of world population in a sustainable manner. The Trouw Nutrition way focuses on innovation, quality, sustainability, and integrated solutions.

Our solutions are built on four solid pillars. Each one contributes to help our customers adding more value to their business in a sustainable and a safe way.

Trouw Nutrition is built on a strong commitment to transform science into actionable, practical nutrition and farm management solutions. We focus on our four innovation pillars that deliver sustainability benefits to animals, farms, and the environment:

Early Life Nutrition:
Birds are confronted with various stressful events during their life, especially in critical transition periods such as hatch and transport. Provision of nutrition and water during the immediate post-hatch period and during transit from hatchery to farm has shown promising effects on broiler performance and health in the first days and weeks of life (Bergoug et al., 2013; Published results, Trouw Nutrition 2016). Early life interventions do not per se result in higher market weights or improved feed efficiency in each flock, but it will contribute to more stable and consistent performance and a reduced risk of birds developing health problems.

Health Life:
Animal Nutrition is an important part of the solution to help to contain Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR). Adequate animal nutrition (well-balanced and well-formulated feed) combined with good hygiene practices on farms and proper housing are key in promoting animal health and welfare. A balanced diet of compound feed supported by specialty feed ingredients/additives meets the animal’s physiological requirements and maintains the balance of the gut flora. Poultry Gut health is in fact a key factor in keeping birds healthy and resilient to stressors, such as heat or pathogens.

Trouw Nutrition Poultry Gut Health Solution, integrates Farm, Feed and Health approach.

Feed​ – Premixes, Young Animal Feed (ChickCare, NutriOpt, feed formulation advice including Intellibond C,
Feed safety: Fysal/Fylax/Toxo
Farm​ – Advice on farm management​ and biosecurity​, Selko pH (drinking water) with dosing systems
Health​ – Selko pH (water) + Selacid (feed), Gut health evaluation​

Water and feed acidification will contribute to maintaining a stable microbiota in poultry. The efficacy of organic and inorganic acids can be further enhanced by inclusion of medium chain fatty acids or other natural antimicrobial compounds that exert a broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity at relative neutral pH ranges.

Precision Nutrition:
From an economical point of view, we need in general to meet nutrient requirements of the birds in the most efficient and economical way and assure that animals are in good health to exploit their potential.

Efficient use of resources e.g. feed ingredients will benefit environmentally sound production. In this respect, use and conversion of co-products from the food and biofuel industry to highly animal nutrition products is contributing to sustainable production as well. One of the challenges in our industry is to be flexible with our raw material usage to manage higher use of low-quality ingredients and anticipate on fluctuations in raw material prices, whilst at the same time we need to have grip on variation in raw material quality and assure that the feed delivers the same high performance.

Near infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS) is a rapid technique to evaluate the nutrient profile of feed ingredients. A more advanced precision nutrition system such as NutriOpt from Trouw Nutrition has incorporated NIRS, with its extensive nutrient databases.

NutriOpt is an integrated nutritional precision-feeding tool from Trouw Nutrition, which enables the poultry farmer or grower or feed miller to optimize both feed costs and production results to maximize financial benefits in the value chain. It consists of several key elements that complement and support one another in optimizing animal nutrition, performance and associated costs through precise real-time analysis, modelling and calculation.

To offer real-time feed analysis, Trouw Nutrition has introduced the NutriOpt On-site Adviser (NOA). This innovative solution reveals the real nutritional value of your feed ingredients and helps to improve performance and profitability. Powered by our comprehensive NutriOpt database, the NutriOpt On-site Adviser provides with accurate analytical results to make better-informed choices.

The portable NIR scanner and the mobile app enable you to get analytical results of nutrients in raw materials and finished feed onsite. The mobile app connects the handheld scanner to the NutriOpt nutritional database and advice on the nutritional value of the scanned materials. The NutriOpt On-site can be even connected to your decision-making tools for a smooth optimisation process.

NOA can perform convenient analysis without samples leaving your farm, and the poultry farm owner can enjoy a greater control over their animal performance.
In relation to feed safety, mycotoxins are probably one of the most important risk factors that need to be controlled among the Indian poultry Industry. It is also encouraging to note, that rapid diagnostics are now more widespread globally adopted for quality control to take appropriate measures once mycotoxin contamination in raw materials is detected. It is an essential part of feed quality assurance and with the right measures the risks can be mitigated, which will prevent unexpected performance losses and health problems.

Measuring mycotoxin levels in feed can be time-consuming and requires specialised and costly methodology. Trouw Nutrition offers “Mycomaster”, a tool to analyse mycotoxins.

Mycomaster provides rapid, cost-effective, and quantitative mycotoxin analyses of over 40 validated feed raw materials and final feed. And it works on-site, bringing flexibility to testing frequency, in support to Feed quality control, formulation decisions and remediation strategies.

Tackling the challenges:
The importance of using a holistic approach to enable successful conversion of feed into high quality poultry protein in a sustainable way is evident for the Indian poultry producers. These high producing birds must be able to consume, digest, absorb and convert sufficient nutrients to meet their genetic potential, and do this consistently from flock to flock. To do this successfully and achieve high consistent production with acceptable risk will require increased use of existing technology and expanding our knowledge and information network. At Trouw Nutrition, we have the tools to support the challenges faced by the poultry producers to make better choices to support the production chain. For a complete overview of our tools and services, please contact your nearest Trouw Nutrition expert/representative.

For further information, kindly write to us at customercareindia@trouwnutrition.com
or visit our website: www.trouwnutrition.in

Dr.Partha P. Biswas
M.Sc.,Ph.D.,F.Z.S.,F.Z.S.I.
Former Asso. Professor & H.O.D.,
Dept. of Zoology, R.K.Mission V.C.College,
Kolkata ,W.Bengal.
Senior Consultant, Aqua-Vet inputs,
Fin-O-Wing Formulations, Kolkata-700084

The chicken industry is becoming more vulnerable to environmental shifts, particularly high temperatures. Open-sided poultry species are susceptible to heat stress, negatively impacting growth and productivity. Factors determining heat stress include temperature radiation, humidity, metabolic rate, age, and duration. Modern commercial broilers are more sensitive to heat stress, making understanding and controlling environmental conditions crucial for poultry production and health. High temperatures in birds reduce antioxidant capacity, requiring food handling and expensive cooling. Understanding and controlling environmental conditions is crucial for poultry production and health.

Thermoregulatory Device in Chicken
Unlike mammals, birds do not have sweat glands, but they have developed a number of behavioral adaptations to cope with heat, including increased breathing rate, panting and raised wings. Commercial poultry prioritize high production, making broilers more sensitive to environmental stresses, and affecting meat quality and immune problems. Under conditions of heat stress, metabolic heat increases, and the animal succumbs to hyperthermia. In summary, it can be concluded that high ambient temperature outside the thermoneutral region during the production phase has a bad effect on meat production, meat quality and causes serious immune problems in broilers.

Heat Shock Proteins of Poultry Birds During Heat Stress
Heat shock proteins (HSPs) are stress proteins found in all living organisms that are activated by high environmental temperatures to protect cells from stressors such as heat. The 70 kDa heat shock proteins (HSP70) are a family of proteins known for their potential role in thermotolerance and widely regarded as cellular thermometers. Over expression of HSP70 has been observed under oxidative stress, leading to mitochondrial reactive oxygen species scavenging and pulmonary endothelial protection against bacterial toxins. They keep cells in order by synthesizing other proteins, attract immune cells and participate in protein assembly and degradation. Higher HSP expression is associated with better heat tolerance and is produced by all living organisms in high temperature environments.

Effects of Heat Stress in Poultry Birds
Reduced voluntary feed intake which affects the functionality of the entire digestive system High environmental temperatures activate the hypothalamus–pituitary axis, brain-gut axis and elevate plasma corticosterone concentrations, affecting the digestive system’s functionality.

This leads to changes in motility, flux patterns, secretory activity, content viscosity and pH Generation of ROS (reactive oxygen species) and the efficacy of the antioxidant defense system deteriorate. Overproduction of ROS in mitochondria can damage proteins, lipids, and DNA Heat stress can impair the feeding process, nutrient absorption and utilization, although water intake increases rapidly Upregulation of adipokines secretion (leptin and adiponectin) and the expression of their receptors can negatively regulate feed intake and calorie consumption thus resulting in decreased metabolic heat production The decline in trypsin, chymotrypsin and amylase (intestinal secretion) due to reduced feed intake often results in impairment of digestive functionality, nutrient digestibility Hypoperfusion and an increase in blood flow to the skin surface occur as an adaptive response of the circulatory system to stabilize blood pressure and promote heat loss It is known that heat challenge has an immune-suppressive effect.

Use of Dietary Phytochemicals to Reduce Heat Stress
Experimental studies on poultry birds suggest phytochemical ingestion may reduce heat stress effects. These phytochemicals can directly or indirectly influence genes and metabolic pathways, with stress reduction linked to antioxidant qualities.

Fig.3: The chicken’s response to being overheated. Chickens raised in high temperatures produce more reactive oxygen species and show signs of immunological inflammation in addition to consuming less food.

Mitigating Heat Stress Using Epigallocatechin-3-Gallate (EGCG), A Secondary Metabolite in Green Tea

Green tea’s most prevalent catechin, EGCG, is thought to be its most bioactive ingredient and possesses potent antioxidant properties. The primary cause of heat stress-induced oxidative stress in poultry is damage to tissues and cells, which is mostly manifested in an increase in MDA (malondialdehyde) concentration in such tissues and cells. It has been demonstrated that adding the polyphenol EGCG to broilers housed in thermoneutral environments may increase their antioxidant capacity. Acutely heat-stressed broilers may have greater antioxidant capacity and less oxidative damage in their muscles because EGCG may activate the Nrf2 signaling pathway.

Reducing Heat Stress in Broiler Chickens With Additional Ginger (Zingiber Officinale) and Onion (Allium Cepa)

Onion and its derivatives including saponins, aglycones, quercetin, cepaenes, flavonoids, organosulfurs, and phenolic compounds showed various pharmacological properties and therapeutic effects.When broilers are heat stressed, the combination of onion and ginger supplements increases the nutrition of the groups more than no supplementation.

According to research results, growth performance, carcass quality, antioxidant levels and immune system response of broilers are improved when fed 10 g of ginger and and 2.5 g of onion during heat stress. Ginger contains substances with powerful antibacterial and antioxidant properties, including chagaol, ginger diol and ginger diol. Ginger (2%) added to broilers suffering from heat stress significantly improved blood biochemical parameters and growth indicators compared to the control group.

Seeds of Black Cumin (Nigella Sativa) improve Bird’s Ability to Live in Heat-stressed Conditions

Black cumin seeds have been shown to have pharmacological and antibacterial properties and also contain drug-like compounds. The volatile oil (0.4-0.45%) contains saturated fatty acids, which include: nigellone, which is the only component of the carbonyl fraction. oil, thymoquinone (TQ), thymohydroquinone (THQ), dithymoquinone, thymol, carvacrol, α and β-pinene, d-limonene, d-citronellol, carvacrol, t-anethole, 4-terpineol and longifolin etc. Thymoquinone improves hatchability, pos-thatching performance and antioxidant activity of thermally stressed broiler embryos. Black cumin extract has been shown in trials to reduce serum MDA levels and protect against oxidative stress.

Hot Red Pepper (HRP) Reduces Heat Exhaustion in Birds

Ascorbic acid, or vitamin C, is abundant in capsaicin, a terpenoid found in HRP that helps prevent heat exhaustion in birds. Carotenoids, which are rich in vitamins E, C, and provitamin A (beta carotene), are known to have powerful antioxidant qualities that help prevent the damaging effects of free radicals and, in certain situations, oxidative stress, which can lead to cell death in broilers. Furthermore, it has been found that adding capsaicin, an active ingredient in red pepper that is present in grill feed at a dose of 50 mg/kg, can lessen the harmful effects of heat stress.

Moringa (Moringa Oleifera)helps to Survive Birds Under Heat Stress

Moringa leaves contain high levels of total polyphenols (260mg/100g), b-carotene (34mg/100g), kaempferol (34mg/100g), quercetin (100mg/100g), as well as a total antioxidant capacity of 260mg/100g. Kaempferol and quercetin are the flavonoids present in moringa leaves and possess strong antioxidants. It has been found that 0.3% incorporation of M. oleifera leaf meal improves the performance and physiological parameters of broilers and also helped the birds survive under heat stress.

THYME (THYMUS VULGAIS) Protects Chicks Against Heat Stress

The two most important bioactive compounds in this plant are carvacrol and thymol, which may be the primary source of thyme’s pharmacological actions. Thus research has identified linalool, thymol, carvacrol, gamma-terpineol, and geraniol as the primary components of thyme. Dietary thyme essential oil (150–200 mg/kg) is more effective at shielding chicks from the harmful effects of heat stress while also enhancing immunological function and development performance. One material that may be able to improve growth in broilers located in hot climates is thyme oil.

Coriander (Coriandrum Sativum) Seed in Ameliorating the Impact of Thermal Challenges

According to research, broilers under heat stress that are fed 2% coriander seed have higher feed intake, weight gain, reduced panting, and higher levels of corticosterone. The broilers’ poor intestinal absorptive capacity and shape may be connected to the rise in corticosterone levels during stress. Furthermore, according to a different study, adding 2% coriander to the diet helps broiler birds by lessening the effects of heat shock. The supplement, according to the author, benefitted broilers that were experiencing heat stress and enhanced their blood parameters, immunity, and overall performance.

Cinnamon (Cinnamomum Zeylanicum) Powder as Antioxidant in Thermally Challenged Birds

The common herbal plant, cinnamon contains different active phenolic compounds, which include flavones, catechin, isoflavones, flavonoids and other phenolics. The main bioactive constituent of cinnamon is cinnamaldehyde. The phenolic components function as antioxidants and can effectively scavenge ROS. Cinnamon supplements help in homeostasis due to the reduced pH caused by heat stress. It has also been reported that an increase in the activity of CAT, total antioxidant capacity and SOD and a decrease in the MDA when birds were placed in a thermally challenged environment during their finishing phase.

Turmeric (Curcuma Longa) for Heat-stressed Broilers

The yellowish pigments of turmeric, namely demethoxycurcumin, curcumin, and bisdemethoxycurcumin, are commonly referred to as curcumoids. Curcuminoids are an antioxidative compound found in turmeric. Researchers have shown the effects of turmeric powder supplement at 0.3 and 0.6 g/kg when administered to birds under heat stress. The superoxide radicals are neutralized, and there is an increase in the activity of SOD and CAT (ROS-removing enzymes or antioxidant enzymes ) and a decrease in MDA in broilers. The increased level in MDA indicates oxidative damage in liver of heat stressed broilers.

Conclusion
Heat stress can hurt poultry birds by making them grow slower, weakening their immune system, causing intestinal inflammation, and causing other health problems. It can also trigger oxidative process. But using natural substances called phytogenic compounds can help chickens who are raised in hot conditions.But more research is needed to understand the molecular changes made by medicinal herbs and the interactions between their active components, gut microbiota, and gut barriers. By using these approaches, we can improve chicken welfare and make poultry production more sustainable and efficient.

Dr Sanjay Singhal, Chief Operating Officer, Stallen South Asia Pvt. Ltd, Mumbai

Mycoplasma, contrary to many other organisms, lack a cell wall, making them smallest free-living organisms with respect to of both size and gene number. Pathogenic Mycoplasma species in chickens are Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG) and Mycoplasma synoviae (MS). MG is typically the more virulent species and results in substantial financial losses. On commercial layer farms across different age groups, MS is a prevalent pathogen and is more ubiquitous.

The ability of different strains of Mycoplasma synoviae (MS) to produce illness varies greatly, with numerous forms appearing moderate. In highly susceptible birds, more pathogenic MS strains can cause serious joint infections, respiratory illnesses, and reduced egg production.

MS often manifests as a mixed infection with other respiratory pathogens, which include the infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) and the Newcastle disease virus (NDV). MS may not necessarily be the primary the cause. These mixed infections can cause significant chronic respiratory illness, particularly under harsh environmental circumstances including high ammonia, low temperatures, and dust. Birds with MS may react more to other live vaccines. Layers of egg yolk peritonitis caused by E. coli have been linked to MS aetiology.

Transmission
Horizontal transmission occurs through direct contact. Birds carry the infection for the rest of their lives. In many respects, the spread appears to be like that of M. gallisepticum except that it is more rapid. Yet reports of slow spreading infections exist. Only a few percent of birds may show clinical symptoms, but most birds often acquire illness by respiratory transmission. Infection may also occur because of environmental contamination or fomites. In chickens and turkeys, vertical transmission is a crucial factor in the spread of MS. When commercial breeder flocks are infected during egg production, the rate of egg transmission seems to peak in the first 4-6 weeks following infection; beyond that, the transmission may stop, although the infected flock may shed at any moment.

Pathophysiology
The pathologic characteristics of synovitis induced by MS involve the joints’ synovial cells hypertrophy and become more proliferative. Activated synovial fibroblasts (SFs) are the primary constituents of hyperplastic synovial tissue in humans with arthritis and play a significant role in the pathophysiology of synovitis.

Matrix metalloproteinases, cathepsins, chemokines, and cytokines are produced by activated synovial fibroblasts, which worsen inflammation and degrade bone and cartilage. For arthritis, reducing the number of activated synovial fibroblasts is a potential treatment approach.

Clinical signs
In poultry, Mycoplasma synoviae usually manifests as upper respiratory tract infection; it may cause mild respiratory disturbances such as rales but is usually subclinical. When the infection spreads to the joints, certain strains of MS may cause a transition from the acute to the chronic phase. Exudative tenosynovitis, an inflammation of the tendons and synovial membranes brought on by invasion of the joint tissue, ultimately results in lameness. The keel bone bursa and the hock (tibial metatarsal) joints are the main regions affected; however other joints may also be damaged. Although this type can be observed in flocks as young as 4 weeks old, it usually manifests itself soon after mature pullets are transferred to the laying farm.

Generally, there is no impact on egg production if the flock is exposed to MS during the laying phase. Egg production may decrease, and desirable egg quality may decrease in flocks that face challenges throughout the laying season. A flock of MS-positive birds that are treated with periodic antibiotic feed therapy might display an irregular egg production curve. Due of restricted movement to feed, water, and nests, lameness from tenosynovitis might further affect egg production.

Oviduct tropism of MS strains have been found recently in commercial layers. It is noticed that flocks infected with certain strains of MS have a higher proportion of cracked and broken eggs. On the apex of the egg, or pointed end, there is a distinctive eggshell defect that may be seen. The rough surface of the eggshell, located 2 centimetres from the apex, is characterized by thinning and translucency, resembling glass eggs. These eggshells lack part of the palisade layer and the mammillary knob layer, according to scanning electron microscopy.

Diagnosis
Accurate diagnosis of mycoplasmosis is crucial for effective management. It is typically achieved through a combination of clinical signs, post-mortem examinations, and laboratory tests. These tests may include serology (blood tests), PCR (polymerase chain reaction), and bacterial isolation from affected tissues.

Treatment
Antibiotics can be administered to control the spread of the disease and manage clinical symptoms. Tetracyclines, tylosin, and lincomycin are commonly used antibiotics. However, it is important to note that these treatments are not curative and are used to suppress the disease.

Prevention and Control
Biosecurity Measures: Implement strict biosecurity measures to prevent the introduction and spread of mycoplasmosis. This includes limiting visitor access, maintaining separate footwear and clothing for workers, and disinfecting equipment and facilities regularly.
Cleanup Programs: Use of appropriate molecule for effective cleaning up of mycoplasmal infection prior to vaccination may provide better results.

Minimize Stress: Stress weakens the immune system, making birds more susceptible to infections. Provide a low-stress environment by ensuring proper nutrition, ventilation, and living conditions.

Surveillance: Regularly monitor your flock for any signs of illness. Early detection allows for prompt intervention and reduces the spread of the disease.

Vaccination: There are vaccines available for both MG and MS, Stallen has killed vaccines against both MG and MS named as MYC Vac and MS Vac respectively, which provides better protection against avian mycoplasmosis. Our MS Vac is the only killed vaccine against Mycoplasma synoviae available in Indian Market. Recommended dose of both vaccines by parenteral route 0.5ml/ bird.

For better results, proper cleanup program with effective anti- mycoplasmal drug is recommended. The above-mentioned vaccines can also be used in midlay vaccination if the priming is done with the live vaccines.

Recommended vaccination schedule

Water Hygiene Challenges and Management in Commercial Poultry Farming during Summer Season

Dr Davendar Singh Kalwani, Technical Sales Manager, Intracare SEA Pvt Ltd

Introduction:
Summer season brings with it extreme challenges for the poultry industry. Among all the prevailing issues, water hygiene remains the top priority, as far as poultry production is concerned. Quality of water will in general, have a direct bearing on poultry’s health and production. Good quality water is important for poultry’s growth, reproductive performance, and general well-being. The prevailing high temperatures coupled with an increased microbial activity during the summers obviously make it tough to maintain the desirable standards of water hygiene. This article attempts to understand the risks involved and the strategies to manage the water hygiene in this summer in a better way. The article also tries to identify the factors contributing to waterborne microbial contamination and understand the impacts of water contamination on poultry health and welfare. Awareness of the peculiar dynamics of summer management, in terms of water hygiene, can help farmers in preventing some of the losses that are usually suffered by them during the summer and throughout the year.

Impact of summer season on water quality:
During summer, various environmental factors can affect the quality of water. The rise in temperature of water is the most important factor. As the water temperature increases, it creates optimal conditions for microbial growth. Mesophilic bacteria including major pathogens proliferate rapidly in such conditions, hence increasing the risk of water contamination in poultry production. These microbes might lead to severe illnesses and reduced performance in terms of growth and reproduction.

Moreover, the elevated water temperature accelerates the decomposition of organic matter which serves as a nutrient source for various microorganisms. Due to this rapid decomposition in warmer temperatures, the level of nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorus in water increases along with release of dissolved solids which further alters the water composition negatively.

Additionally, this can fuel the algal bloom in underground water reservoirs. Some species of algae produce toxins that are harmful to both animals and humans if ingested. Also, as algae die and decomposes it hastens the degradation of water quality.

In addition to microbial contamination and algal blooms, summer conditions can also aggravate other water quality issues in poultry operations. Reduced rainfall and drought conditions in certain regions can result in lower water levels in reservoirs and water bodies. Lower water levels concentrate pollutants, such as nutrients, chemicals, and sediment, leading to higher concentrations in the remaining water. This can further degrade water quality and increase the risk of contamination for poultry.

Biofilm as a hidden threat:
Formation of biofilm during summer is another crucial aspect involved in degrading water quality particularly in water pipelines. Biofilms is a slimy layer consisting of complex communities of microbes that attach to surfaces of water pipes, tanks, and drinkers. Warm climate can enhance the growth and proliferation of various bacteria, easing the formation of such biofilms. These biofilms pose several challenges to the quality of water and poultry health. It provides protection for microbes inside it by shielding them from disinfectants and making them more resistant to removal, this allows pathogens to persist in the water systems for long durations making itself a source of infection.

Biofilms can also cause deterioration of water infrastructure; its accumulation might lead to corrosion of pipes and fittings which can compromise the integrity of water distribution system. Additionally, it can cause blockages and reduce the flow of water and thus affecting water flow to drinkers which can lead to dehydration in birds.

Furthermore, biofilms act as a reservoir for pathogens, releasing them into the water intermittently and perpetuating the cycle of contamination. This can pose a continuous threat to poultry health, increasing the likelihood of disease outbreaks and impacting the overall productivity of the operation.

Effects of poor water quality on poultry production:
1. Biofilm inside water pipeline may reduce intake, causing dehydration and poor growth.
2. Biofilms can release pathogens, affecting bird health and productivity.
3. Contaminants may lead to digestive issues, diarrhoea, and poor growth.
4. Poor quality of water can affect egg quality resulting in thin shelled eggs and reduced hatchability in fertile eggs.
5. Stress from poor water quality drops reproductive performance in poultry flocks.
6. Mortality rates can increase due to stress, dehydration, and disease susceptibility.
7. Water contaminants compromise vaccine efficacy, leaving birds vulnerable to infections.
8. It might worsen the effect of concurrent viral or any other diseases.
9. Clogged delivery systems can hamper vaccine administration, risking inadequate immunity in poultry.
10. It can increase the chances of vertical transmission of bacterial diseases in progeny.

Management Strategies for Summer Water Hygiene:
Following strategies may be followed to ensure quality drinking water to poultry birds:
1. Regularly clean the water sources, pipes, and drinkers to prevent biofilm and pathogen buildup.
2. Test the water quality regularly for pH, TDS, and microbial contamination.
3. Use of good quality water disinfectant and sanitizers and follow manufacturer guidelines.
4. Control water temperature to prevent microbial growth.
5. Minimize water wastage by fixing leaks and optimizing delivery systems.
6. Educate farm staff on water hygiene.
7. Maintain records of cleaning schedules and water quality tests.

Ensuring water quality at poultry farms:
Along with all the management strategies, the most crucial step is pipeline cleaning and water sanitation. There are many chemical agents available for the same purpose. Choosing the best water sanitizer and cleaning agent should be based on several characteristics.
When it comes to pipeline cleaning methods, the following characteristics are desirable:
1. Efficiency: The cleaning method should effectively remove biofilms, mineral deposits, sediment, and other contaminants from water pipelines to maintain optimal water quality and flow rates.
2. Non-Corrosive: Cleaning agents or procedures should not corrode or damage pipeline materials, ensuring the longevity and integrity of the water distribution system.
3. Accessibility: Pipeline cleaning methods should be accessible and practical for poultry producers, whether through manual cleaning procedures or automated cleaning systems.
4. Frequency: The cleaning frequency should be appropriate to prevent biofilm formation and ensure consistent water quality for poultry health and performance.
5. Validation: Cleaning procedures should be validated to confirm their effectiveness in removing contaminants and maintaining water sanitation standards.

When considering water sanitizers for poultry operations, several characteristics are essential to ensure effective and safe water management:
1. Broad-Spectrum Activity: An ideal water sanitizer should have broad-spectrum activity against a wide range of bacteria, viruses, fungi, and other pathogens commonly found in poultry drinking water. This ensures comprehensive protection against disease-causing organisms.
2. Non-Toxic and Safe: The sanitizer should be non-toxic to poultry and humans when used at recommended concentrations. It should not leave harmful residues that could affect bird health or compromise food safety.
3. Residue-Free: After application, the sanitizer should degrade into non-toxic by-products or dissipate without leaving any harmful residues in the water or water distribution system.
4. Stability: The sanitizer should remain stable under varying environmental conditions, including temperature fluctuations and water pH levels, to maintain its effectiveness over time.
5. Compatibility: It should be compatible with commonly used materials in poultry water systems, such as PVC, polyethylene, and stainless steel, to prevent corrosion or damage to pipelines and water equipment.
6. Ease of Application: The sanitizer should be easy to apply and should not require complex equipment or procedures for effective use. This ensures practicality and efficiency in poultry farm operations.
7. Regulatory Compliance: The sanitizer should comply with regulatory standards and guidelines set forth by relevant authorities, ensuring its safety and efficacy for use in poultry production.
8. Environmental Impact: Consideration should be given to the environmental impact of the sanitizer, including its biodegradability and potential effects on water quality in surrounding ecosystems.

Based on these characteristics, selecting a suitable option is very perplexing. In general, quaternary ammonium salts (commonly called quats) and hydrogen peroxide fulfil almost all the requirements but they have some drawbacks as well. Hydrogen peroxide is an unstable compound and loses its efficacy in very short period making it difficult to get uniform results across pipeline. Quats are effective for water sanitation, but they have limited action on biofilms particularly mature ones. However, 50% stabilized hydrogen peroxide is an excellent choice as it easily overcomes the above problems. Its broad-spectrum effectiveness, safety, non-corrosive properties, long shelf-life, and environmental compatibility make it an indispensable tool in safeguarding the health and profitability of poultry flocks, particularly in the challenging conditions of the summer season.

Conclusion
In conclusion, managing water hygiene effectively is among top priority for commercial poultry farmers, especially during the challenging conditions of summer. Summer’s heat and increased microbial activity threaten water quality. Regular cleaning, disinfection, temperature control, and water testing can help combat these threats successfully. Minimizing water wastage waste, staff training, and record-keeping further strengthen water hygiene plans. By proactively managing water, poultry farmers ensure the long-term health and profitability of their flocks.

It was first discovered in the juice of sugar beets. Naturally accumulated in plants as osmolyte to protect against salt and temperature stress. Derivative of glycine (amino acid). Neutral molecule with bipolar structure (zwitterion) as shown in Fig. 1 contains three methyl groups.

Fig.1: Chemical Structure of Betaine

2. Betaine functions as (mode of action):
A. Methyl donor – methyl groups used for protein synthesis and other metabolic processes. Methyl groups play a pivotal role in several cellular processes, including DNA methylation, synthesis of phosphatidylcholine, and protein synthesis. Choline and betaine are both capable of donating methyl groups. However, for choline to do so, it must first be converted into betaine as shown in Fig. 2. In poultry, the capacity to synthesize betaine from choline is limited, thus making dietary supplementation the primary source.

Fig. 2: Role of betaine in the methionine cycle in liver

Betaine can substitute for choline in performing the following functions:
1) Regulating fat metabolism in the liver to prevent abnormal fat accumulation in hepatocytes.
2) Serving as a methyl donor for the formation of methionine and creatine, through its involvement in the transmethylation pathway.
Betaine cannot replace choline in the function of maintaining cell membrane and structure as an emulsifier to transport lipids, since choline is a constituent of phospholipids. Similarly, betaine cannot replace choline as a precursor of acetylcholine in the transmission of nerve impulses.

B. Osmo-regulator: – ability to bind and retain water in a reversible manner.
Osmolytes are compounds that aid in the regulation of osmotic pressure within cells and tissues, playing a crucial role in preserving cellular integrity.
Dehydration, disease, heat stress, and other factors can cause alterations in the water content of cells. Osmolytes can be either inorganic ions such as Na+, K+, Cl-, or organic compounds such as amino acids, certain sugars, and betaine. Betaine plays a crucial role in stabilizing cellular metabolic function during periods of stress, preserving the cell’s capacity to uptake nutrients, unlike osmolytes such as Na+, K+, and Cl-. Moreover, it offers protection to intracellular enzymes against osmotic inactivation.

3. Heat stress
Heat stress is a major challenge in poultry production, especially during the hot summer months. It occurs when birds face difficulty in achieving a balance between body heat produced and heat loss. This imbalance can lead to several health issues and production losses.

4. The Role of Betaine in Enhancing Poultry Health During Heat Stress.
a) Betaine aids in preserving intestinal integrity by facilitating water retention, increasing cell volume, promoting anabolic activity, and maintaining cellular integrity as shown in fig. 4. which are Representative photomicrographs of the ileum after 10 days of the experiment from broilers fed a control diet (CON, A and C) and betaine (BET, B and D) on villous height under thermoneutral (TN, A and B) or after 10 days being exposed to heat stress (HS, C and D).

Fig. 3 – Intestinal barrier damage in HS (Soheil Varasteh, et al. Nutrients, 2020)

Fig. 4 – Impact of betaine on intestinal integrity of broiler birds in Heat stress conditions (Shakeri et al, Animals 2020)

b) Betaine has three methyl groups in its structure and donates them in various metabolic reactions, which can spare compounds like methionine, choline, and folic acid. Therefore, supplementing with betaine may reduce the need for these nutrients.

c) The growth rate of poultry birds is enhanced by betaine, which conserves energy that would otherwise be expended on the Na+/K+ pump and Calcium pump in high temperatures. This conserved energy can then be directed towards growth.

d) Betaine enhances the concentration of beneficial short-chain fatty acids, such as acetic and propionic acid, which are vital to host bacteria like Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium in poultry. This improvement enables these bacteria to effectively inhabit the caecum and inhibit the colonization of harmful bacteria in the intestinal tract.

e) Betaine supplementation in laying hens leads to an increase in daily egg mass production, reduces thin eggshell issues which are related to heat stress, and helps to enhance serum concentrations of estradiol and melatonin.

f) Trouw Nutrition’s Betaine is proven to elevate production performance even under heat stress conditions, notably increasing breast meat percentage through the provision of essential methyl groups, as depicted in Fig. 5. Recognizing that high-performing animals demand superior nutrition for sustained health and optimal growth, Selko Feed Additives introduces TNIbetain. This meticulously tested supplement supports animal performance across multiple metabolic pathways. TNIbetain adheres strictly to the stringent quality standards upheld by Trouw Nutrition Feed Additives.

Fig. 5: Effect of Trouw Nutrition betaine on broiler performance
Contrasting the Attributes of Trouw Nutrition’s Natural Betaine with Synthetic Betaine

Recommended Dosage:
For broiler, layer, and breeder birds: 0.5 to 1 kg per ton of feed. However, in challenging conditions such as heat stress, the Betaine dosage can be increased to up to 2 kg per ton of feed.
g) Betaine has been found to significantly enhance hematological parameters, including RBC and platelet count, while reducing the number of heterophils and increasing the number of lymphocytes. The reduction in lymphocyte count during heat stress is attributed to the rise in inflammatory cytokines, which stimulate hypothalamic production of corticotrophin releasing hormones.
h) Betaine aids in the expansion of intestinal mucosa, thereby enhancing the absorption and utilization of nutrients, which results in improved digestibility of crude protein, crude fiber, ether extract.
i) Studies have demonstrated that betaine interacts with lipid metabolism by promoting the oxidative catabolism of fatty acids through its involvement in carnitine synthesis. Therefore, betaine can be utilized to increase the proportion of lean meat and reduce fat in poultry carcasses.
j) Betaine acts as an osmoregulatory in the intestine, optimizing water and salt balance within cells for efficient nutrient absorption and reducing litter moisture. It increases villus height, protecting enterocytes during challenges like coccidiosis, and strengthens the gut, reducing damage during infections as shown in Fig. A, B and C.
The various effects described above are either directly or indirectly linked to betaine’s osmoregulatory function and its role in methionine biosynthesis.
Betaine emerges as a pivotal component in poultry health management, particularly in the face of heat stress challenges. Originating from sugar beets, its molecular structure rich in methyl groups facilitates its dual function as a methyl donor and osmoregulator, essential for maintaining cellular integrity and supporting metabolic processes. Amidst heat stress conditions, Betaine supplementation showcases remarkable efficacy, preserving intestinal integrity, conserving energy expenditure, and enhancing production performance. Its multifaceted benefits extend to improvements in hematological parameters, nutrient absorption, and lipid metabolism. With its proven effectiveness and adherence to stringent quality standards, Betaine stands as a crucial asset in optimizing poultry health and performance under challenging environmental conditions, exemplifying the potential of innovative nutritional strategies in safeguarding livestock welfare and productivity.

For further information, kindly write to us at customercareindia@trouwnutrition.com or visit our website: www.trouwnutrition.in

The gastrointestinal tract (GIT) health impacts poultry productivity. It is known to be the pillar of poultry success. The poultry microbiome has myriad functions which range from protection against pathogens and nutrients production, to host immune system development. Healthy poultry birds possess a natural resistance to infection. Since optimum performance and growth rate are central to animal production, the host-microbiome relationship remains integral.

A healthy gut ensures:

• Proper digestion and absorption of valuable feed nutrients
• Less wastage of nutrients
• Minimum foul odour.
• Provides resistance against entero-pathogens
• Checks mortality and morbidity losses
• Optimizes feed conversion ratio.

Figure 1 : The gastrointestinal tract of a chicken.

Apart from nutrient absorption and digestion, three important part of gut function are gut integrity, gut immunity, and gut microbiome. Intestinal integrity may be described as the intactness of the intestine in maintaining its structure and function or simply an unimpaired and sound intestine.

Gut integrity maintains a strong barrier of defense. Physical barriers protect against the entry of foreign materials and organisms into the bloodstream and access to other viscera thus helping intestinal integrity. On occasion due to improper nutrition or an unhygienic environment, when the load of foreign invaders increases these barriers are breached.

1. Mucus (Mucus: material secreted by intestinal cells) acts as a barrier to bacterial and fungal invasion.

2. Gut epithelial cells (enterocytes): These cells form a semi-permeable surface that selectively allows passage of fluid, electrolytes, and dissolved nutrients. Every epithelial cell in the digestive tract is part of a continuous physical barrier. When organisms and toxic agents damage epithelial cells, the integrity of this protective barrier is broken.

3. Fluid secretion: fluid having large amounts of water mixed with electrolytes. The fluid in the upper small intestine is protective and keeps bacteria in suspension and washes them downstream.

4. Vascular supply: supply under the gut epithelial layer serves to rapidly dilute and carry away any agents or chemicals (endogenous or exogenous) that may breach the mucosal barrier.

Gut integrity can be affected by physical barriers Stress factors, Feed toxins and toxicants, dietary factors, health status and gut microflora.

Gut Immunity: Poultry GIT can be considered an immune organ. GALT (Gut associated lymphoid tissue ) is a secondary immune organ and developed early stage in birds life.

Gut microbiome: Consists of species of bacteria, protozoa and fungi in the GIT.

Early life and Gut health
Early life care is an important factor in maximizing profits from broiler operations. Early nutrition mainly in the first 7 days of life for broilers may program the birds’ systems and set a pattern for growth and productivity. A larger percentage of early growth (upto 5 times the growth rate of other tissues) occurs in the digestive tract and those organs involved in digestion. If digestive growth is hampered during this period, overall growth rate may be compromised. Newly hatched chicks are more prone to gut infections as its natural defence is yet to be strengthened. So proper care should be taken during this period.

Functions of Gastrointestinal Tract

Role of Environment in Poultry Gut health:

Role of Dietary Factors in Improving Intestinal Integrity
1. Quality feed ingredients: Supplementation of quality feed ingredients helps in maintaining natural gut health. Mycotoxins which are present in most of feed raw materials like Aflatoxin, Fumonisins, T2, DON, Zearalenone, Ochratoxins affect the gut integrity thereby affecting the gut health and giving rise to bacterial issues like E coli and Clostridium which is directly correlated with the presence of multiple mycotoxins. .

2. Processed feed: Many incriminating factors of feed are destroyed due to processing.

3. Pelleted feed: Pelleting provides scope for utilization of high fibre feed resources. Use of steam- pelleted feed seems to be of value in maintaining gut health.

4. Feed additives: Like Anticoccidials and Ionophores Coccidiosis, a managemental disease, causes devastating losses to the poultry industry. Other feed additives which can help maintain gut health are organic acids, probiotics, prebiotics, mycotoxin binders etc.

Conclusion: To summarise, gastrointestinal tract is the key organ that converts feed to meat and eggs. It is largest organ exposed to foreign matters and serves as first line of defence. GIT is continuously exposed to multiple foreign materials and irritants. Regardless of the level of hygiene and biosecurity imposed at production level, poultry will be exposed to multiple infections and toxic agents through the feed and environment.

Aerobic and anaerobic bacteria, toxin-producing fungi, and protozoan parasites (coccidian) are challenging to be eliminated from poultry production units.

Because of the potential development of antibiotic resistant human pathogenic bacteria, the use of antibiotics, have come under increasing scrutiny and feed safety concerns in the food chain. Hence, today’s intensive animal agriculture industry must adapt to producing poultry and take care of holistic factors that affect gut health right from maintaining biosecurity ,early chick health and also by implementing nutritional strategies that would strengthen the gut health by securing gut integrity, gut immunity and gut microbiome .

Dr. Anvesha Bhan1, Dr. Sundus Gazal2 and Dr. Sabahat Gazal3
Division of Veterinary Microbiology and Immunology, Sher-e-Kashmir University of
Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Jammu

Introduction
India has a remarkable diversity of climate zones, from tropical in the south to alpine and moderate in the Himalayan north, where highlands see heavy snowfall in the winter. Such diverse climatic challenges and extremes lead to variations in managemental practices across different parts of the country. Winter poses formidable temperature challenges, making it challenging to sustain both livability and production without additional measures. Managing winter conditions is often said to be like a double-edged sword, requiring a delicate balance between climate and ventilation management. Strategic decision-making is essential to minimize production costs while ensuring a healthy environment. Experience is crucial in gauging the economic feasibility of cost-intensive management practices. The art and science of poultry rearing hinge significantly on effective management, playing a pivotal role in determining the profitability of the business. Over the past several years, it has been noted that peak market rates for broiler meat and eggs occur during difficult winter rearing conditions when demand surpasses supply. Hence, a comprehensive understanding and implementation of optimal management practices are imperative during the winter season.

During the winter season, when temperatures fall below 55°F, poultry faces various challenges such as a decline in egg production, reduced water consumption, lower fertility and hatchability rates, inefficient feed conversion in broilers, diminished weight gain, lower fertility, increased bird mortality, and more. These climate-related changes can have direct or indirect impacts on both egg and meat production. Consequently, poultry farmers need to be prepared to address these challenges by implementing cold stress-relieving measures to mitigate potential economic losses. Thus, poultry farmers need to implement various measures to enhance poultry production during the winter season.

Proper orientation of the poultry house
The poultry house should be meticulously designed to ensure optimal comfort for the birds during the winter season. The orientation of the building in relation to wind and sunlight significantly impacts the temperature and light exposure on various external surfaces. In winter, when the sun’s visible path is shortened, aligning a rectangular house in the east-west orientation maximizes solar energy absorption. The design should prioritize the allowance of maximum sunlight into the shed during the daytime. To shield the birds from chilling winds, precautionary measures can be taken by hanging gunny bags at points where cold air enters. These bags should be lowered in the evening after sunlight diminishes and raised again in the morning before the sunlight reappears, creating a barrier against cold drafts.

Effective management of ventilation
Birds naturally release a significant amount of moisture through their breath and droppings, which can have adverse effects on their health. Inadequate ventilation contributes to the accumulation of ammonia in the air, posing respiratory threats. Therefore, it is crucial to ensure sufficient fresh air circulation within the poultry shed. Sliding the windows open during the day serve this purpose by allowing ventilation and the windows should be closed at night. Installing exhaust fans in poultry sheds is another effective measure to expel impure air. To maintain warmth in the poultry shed, traditional BUKHARIS or heaters can be installed. In smaller-scale poultry farming, the use of multiple 200W bulbs can also generate heat and contribute to maintaining a comfortable temperature for the birds.

Adequate poultry litter management

Before introducing chicks to the shed, it is essential to establish a stable floor surface by using a bedding material known as litter. This not only provides comfort to the birds but also serves various important functions. A sufficient quantity of high-quality bedding material contributes to insulation by maintaining a consistent temperature. Additionally, it absorbs excess moisture, preventing dampness, and promotes drying. The litter helps in breakdown of fecal matter, thus reducing the likelihood of contact between the birds and their waste. Furthermore, it acts as a barrier between the birds and the cold ground, serving as a cushion. An optimal depth of around 6 inches of bedding material or litter is recommended during the winter season, as it provides ample warmth to the birds. The moisture content in the litter should ideally be maintained within the range of 25-35%. However, proper management is crucial to prevent the litter from becoming excessively wet due to water from various sources. Wet litter can lead to the formation of cakes, providing an ideal environment for bacterial growth and ammonia production. If the litter becomes excessively wet and cakes are formed, it is advisable to replace it. During the winter season, it is generally not recommended to completely empty the shed, as the built-up litter helps retain heat. If litter removal is necessary, only a portion should be removed to maintain a suitable environment for the birds.

Strategic poultry feeding management

Poultry utilizes nutrients from food for two primary purposes: as an energy source to maintain normal body temperature and support physiological functions, and as building materials for the development of bones, feathers, flesh, eggs, etc. Therefore, it is essential to provide poultry with an adequate, well-balanced, and nutritious diet to meet these needs. In colder temperatures, there is an increased demand for feed consumption and oxygen. Hence, it is necessary to supply birds with an ample amount of food, as they require extra energy to maintain their body temperature during the winter season. Caloric intake per bird per day fluctuates with variations in environmental temperature. When poultry consumes more feed for energy, it also ingests excess nutrients that become wasteful.
To prevent such wastage during winter, it is advisable to include energy-rich feed sources like oil or fat in the diet. Increasing the number of feeders in winter compared to summer is recommended, and feed should be made available to the birds throughout the day. In terms of nutritional content, a winter diet should consist of 3400 kcal/kg ME and 23% protein, as compared to a summer diet requiring 3100 kcal/kg ME and 23% protein. Providing poultry with high-calorie feed in the winter helps keep them warm. It is crucial to store the feed in dry places to prevent moisture contact and maintain its quality.

Efficient poultry water management

During the winter season, poultry may require less water, but it is crucial to ensure a continuous supply of fresh and clean water for proper hydration. If the water is very cold, it should be provided to the birds after adding hot water to bring it to a normal temperature. Regions experiencing snowfall often encounter issues with pipe blockages due to water freezing in the winter when temperatures drop below 0°C. To prevent such problems, regular inspections of pipelines should be conducted to avoid water blockages. Water serves as a carrier for various vaccines, medicines, and anti-stress vitamins for poultry. Since water intake decreases during the winter season, it is important to remove waterers a few hours before water medication. Medicines or vaccines should be administered in a smaller amount of water, ensuring that each bird consumes the total water and receives the full benefits of the medication, vaccine, or other supplements. Careful attention to water management is essential to maintain the health and well-being of poultry during winter.

Implementation of supplementary management
The poultry environment is conducive to pests and rodents that are also seeking warmer places for habitation, thus making their control extremely crucial. Poultry farmers must be vigilant about winter illnesses, as neglecting them can pose a serious threat to the flock. Maintaining gut health is essential for optimal performance and preventing business losses. Various feed additives play a critical role in supporting and enhancing gut health, including Protease, NSPase Enzyme, Probiotics, Essential Oils, Organic Acids, etc. Organic Acids like coated benzoic acids not only reduce pathogenic bacteria such as Clostridium and Salmonella but also enhance the inhabitation of Lactobacillus in the gut.

Essential oils primarily function as digestive enhancers and also have immune-boosting properties. They aid in the effective digestion of nutrients in the early stages where endogenous enzymes may not be fully active. Additionally, essential oils impede quorum sensing, acting as natural antibacterials. In case of illness, following the standard protocols is crucial. This includes isolating sick birds through quarantine, administering various broad-spectrum antibiotics via feed or water (depending on availability), and ensuring proper vaccination. Poultry farmers should regularly check the vaccination status and promptly consult a local veterinarian when birds are found to be unwell. This proactive approach is vital for maintaining the health and well-being of the poultry flock.

Dr Bhaskar Choudhary
Area Manager – Southeast Asia & West Africa at
Biochem Zusatzstoffe Handels- und Produktionsgesellschaft mbH

The factors that cause leg weakness, include nutritional deficits, mechanically induced trauma, toxins, genetic defects, pathogens infectious diseases, sex, weight and growth rate, age, the efficiency of feed conversion, handling and movement.

1. Leg weakness and lameness due to genetic & Nutritional imbalance
In field broiler birds we observe that compare to Cobb non cobb breed have high breast meat percentage but simultaneously its micronutrients & macronutrients requirements is high specially in case of change of conventional raw materials in field, since demand of growth rate is high to meet this demand only protein & energy in feed formulation consider while micro & macro nutrients of one accord neglect reason may be.

a. commercial constraint
b. Not having enough information about alternative raw materials.

A well-balanced diet is essential in broilers to prevent leg disorders. For example, a shortage of water-soluble vitamins, manganese, or zinc may lead to the development of shorter bones with valgus abnormalities. In addition, ‘rickets’ can be exacerbated by a lack of nutrients in fast-growing chickens. Small shortages of biotin in feeding schedules caused more footpad dermatitis, liver discoloration due to which vitamin D3 absorption hamper which at the end cause leg weakness.

2. Leg weakness due to management :
a. We are well aware about that quarter of time seem the chickens to sleep and more than half of the time they are just not doing anything. A healthy chicken is on average 76 percent of the time spent lying. This percentage is increased with age, and it is indicated that it is significantly larger with a higher degree of lameness (up to 86
percent) , here 23hour light & 1 hour darkness standard to increase the food intake and growth rate . The light can have an influence on behavior, physiology and well-being in different ways. There are studies that have shown that lameness and growth of chicks is influenced by different light periods .

b. Litter
When housing poultry litter on the ground is well important. A good litter material can be defined as a material that can absorb and give off a lot of moisture back. In practice, wine wood shavings and straw, the most commonly used materials . It was also reported all that chicks that sit on wood shavings show higher activity than those sitting on straw. This could also be an occasion for less lameness.

c. Conditioning (Heating and Ventilation)
The high and low temperature is associated with increased incidence of leg disorders. At a low occupancy is apparent that the air has little influence on the chick quality. At a higher occupancy (20 chicks per m2), however, the climate has an influence the proportion chicks with diseased feet are lower and they are less soiled

d. Occupancy :
The use of high occupancy is far-reaching to economically maximum advantage. Use of the surface however, the capacity is limited by the bad effects that this has on the growth and quality. The occupation has a clear influence on the external quality of the chicks. In the lower occupancy of 16 chicks per m2 is the number of chicks with red heels considerably lower and annotating of the soles is significantly less. Moreover, there are fewer varieties for the chicks less soiled at low stocking densities.

3. Gender: Both sexes have problems of lameness However, the male chicks encountered more problems than the female, even when the body weight is considered.

4. Mycotoxins: Articular Gout and Tibia Dyschonroplasia and the list various bone diseases in broilers possibly caused by mycotoxins. Mycotoxins such as aflatoxin, ochratoxin and fusarium toxin lead to rickets due to their toxic effects on liver and kidney, which consequently prevents the conversion of vitamin D3 and its absorption.

5. Infectious Diseases:
a. Reovirus: It is suspected that the virus can spread through ‘avian egg transmission’, especially since the virus was found in apparently normal embryos from commercial chickens. clinical symptoms are characterized by mild to moderate lameness swollen ‘hocks’ met a noticeable increase of fluid in the “hock” joints.

b. Mycoplasma synoviae : Invisible Mycoplasma Synoviae causes respiratory diseases but can also result in airsacculitis and synovitis in chickens.

c. Staphylococcus aureus: Infection with S. aureus can cause many different clinical features such as septicemia (prevention of pathogenic microorganisms and their toxins in the blood), bone and joint infections, abscesses and dermatitis.

Field Observation:
1. Chondrodystrophie &Tibia dyschondroplasia: Poultry with a shortage of B complex vitamins, Manganese (Mn), can develop shorter bones with varus abnormalities.

It is observed that Liquid organic minerals & Biotin.
Zinc-40mg/litre
Mn-25mg/litre
Cu-4 mg/litre
Biotin-80 mg/litre

First 10 days 1ml per liter of drinking water in broiler chicken helps in this varus abnormalities.

Femoral head necrosis: These diseases may affect the entire house. The clearest indicator is the inability of the broilers to stand up. When there is an autopsy is carried out on the birds, it is the end of the femur. The broilers can respond to vitamin D3 in the drinking water.

Contact dermatitis: This is a managemental problem due to bad litter effect of ammonium chemical burning in the litter. Contact
dermatitis is clear due to very long time spent for sitting and bad litter. The time that is spent for sitting and lying by the chicks, increases with the age from 75 percent in the first week to 90 percent at five weeks. Footpad dermatitis is a type of contact dermatitis, which is characterized by lesions on the soles of poultry.

Conclusion:
1. Mycoplasma management where ND & IB titer which need to be managed by proper vaccination schedule & use of eucalyptus oil in drinking water after 12 hour this vaccination so that ND & IB titer improve in birds.

2. Avoid Antibiotics in drinking water & feed the first 10 days unless it is not required for treatment which is mostly used in the field as Agp or yolk absorption (as a myth among farmer) or some field practitioner in 3rd to 5th day for mycoplasma prevention which aggravates the situation.

3. Due to effect of Global warming Mycotoxin threat is worldwide which need to be mange with good multiple toxin binder which have good adsorption & desorption at different pH (pH 2-8.5)

4. Nutritional formulation not only consider protein or energy but also macro & micronutrients specially when consider non-conventional raw materials, in farm application liquid organic minerals Biotin & Vitamin D3 important tool to overcome this nutritional deficiency problems.

5. Lighting, ventilation & litter management in poultry shed is very much essential for proper growth & food pad dermatitis.