Abstract
Effective chiller sanitation is critical in poultry processing to minimize microbial contamination, preserve product quality, and maintain equipment integrity. This study evaluated the comparative performance of Intra Hydrocare, a chelated silver-stabilized hydrogen peroxide formulation, and sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) at 50 ppm in screw chillers of a commercial poultry processing plant in Punjab, India. Over a two-month field trial, weekly samples (n = 12/event) were collected from chiller inlet water, outlet water, surfaces, and carcass rinses. Microbial load was assessed using Total Plate Count (TPC) and ATP bioluminescence, while equipment hygiene, sensory quality, and operator safety were also evaluated. Intra Hydrocare demonstrated consistently superior antimicrobial performance, maintaining >99.9% microbial reduction throughout the chilling cycle, compared with the rapid efficacy decay observed with NaOCl (≈50% loss by outlet). Biofilm disruption was markedly improved with Intra Hydrocare, reflected by an 85% reduction in ATP values. Chillers treated with NaOCl showed scaling and surface dulling, whereas Intra Hydrocare prevented corrosion, removed existing deposits, and supported improved hygiene. Sensory evaluation confirmed that Intra Hydrocare preserved product colour, odour, and texture, while NaOCl occasionally produced chlorinous odours and bleaching. Operator observations also indicated reduced eye irritation and improved handling safety with Intra Hydrocare. These findings highlight Intra Hydrocare as a highly effective, residue-free, and sustainable alternative to hypochlorite-based disinfectants in poultry screw chillers. Its adoption can enhance food safety, extend equipment lifespan, support certification compliance, and elevate overall processing efficiency.

Keywords: Intra Hydrocare; Sodium hypochlorite; Poultry processing; Screw chillers; Hydrogen peroxide; Biofilm control; Microbial reduction; Total Plate Count (TPC); Equipment hygiene; Food safety.

Introduction
Effective sanitation in poultry processing plants is essential to minimize microbial contamination and ensure the safety and quality of final products. Screw chillers, which are critical for rapidly reducing carcass temperature following evisceration, represent a high-risk point for cross-contamination due to continuous exposure to organic matter, water recirculation, and contact between carcasses (Buncic & Sofos, 2012). Pathogens such as Salmonella spp. and Campylobacter spp. are frequently introduced into chiller systems and can persist on equipment surfaces or within biofilms, posing a significant public health risk and contributing to foodborne illnesses globally (EFSA, 2024; Scallan et al., 2011).

Sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) remains one of the most widely used disinfectants in poultry chillers due to its broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity and low cost (Kim et al., 2023). In commercial processing, NaOCl is typically applied at concentrations around 50 ppm (Na et al., 2023) However, its performance is constrained by several operational and chemical limitations. First, chlorine activity is highly pH-dependent, with optimal performance in acidic environments (pH <7), whereas chiller systems often operate under neutral to slightly alkaline conditions, reducing biocidal efficacy (Amiri et al, 2010). Second, NaOCl reacts rapidly with organic matter, such as blood, fat, and proteins, leading to immediate depletion of free available chlorine and requiring repeated dosing to maintain effective concentrations (Waters and Hung, 2014). Third, sodium hypochlorite shows limited penetration into complex biofilms, which enables survival of Campylobacter, Listeria, and Salmonella on chiller surfaces despite routine sanitation (Alvarez-Ordóñez et al., 2019). Lastly, excessive dosing used to compensate for chlorine loss can negatively affect product quality, producing chlorinous off-odours, yellow discoloration, and bitterness, contributing to rejection rates of 15–20% in high-throughput processing plants (Agnello et al.,2012; Hurlbut et al.,1983; Gretchen Marlene Nagel, 2012; Kumar et al.,2023)

These limitations have prompted interest in alternative biocides that can maintain stability in organic-rich environments, exert broad antimicrobial action, avoid product quality deterioration, and improve worker safety. Intra Hydrocare, an ultra-stabilized hydrogen peroxide formulation, has gained recognition as a next-generation disinfectant. It is approved by the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) under the Biocidal Products Regulation (BPR) for PT02, PT03, PT04, and PT05 applications, and holds NSF/ANSI Standard 60 certification for potable water systems. As a residue-free oxidizing biocide that decomposes into water and oxygen, Intra Hydrocare offers advantages including non-corrosiveness, extended shelf life, and suitability for organic production systems (USDA NOP; EU Organic Regulation 2018/848). Hydrogen peroxide-based disinfectants have demonstrated superior biofilm degradation, greater stability in organic environments, and reduced risk of sensory changes in treated poultry products (Stearns et al., 2022).

Given these properties, Intra Hydrocare presents a promising alternative to NaOCl in poultry chillers. The present study compares the performance of Intra Hydrocare and NaOCl under commercial processing conditions, with an emphasis on microbial reduction (total plate count, TPC), equipment hygiene, operator safety, and downstream product quality outcomes. The findings aim to inform evidence-based selection of sanitizing agents for modern poultry processing systems.

Materials and Methods
Study Period and Setting: The study was conducted from September 2025 to November 2025 at Perfect Poultry Products Pvt. Ltd., Amritsar, Punjab, India, a mid-scale commercial poultry processing plant (CPP) with a capacity of 30,000 birds/day. The facility operates four stainless-steel screw chillers of two sizes (2.1 m × 6 m and 1.6 m × 6 m), with capacities of 12,000 L and 8,500 L, respectively (Figure 1).
Study Design: A controlled, comparative field trial was implemented over a 2-month period. The four screw chillers were divided into two treatment groups:

1. Control group: Sodium Hypochlorite (NaOCl)
a) Two screw chillers operated using 50 ppm sodium hypochlorite (from commercial 10% NaOCl solution).
b) Dosing was performed via inline injection calibrated to maintain consistent free chlorine levels.
c) Water pH was monitored at each sampling (target: 7.2–7.5).
d) Free available chlorine was measured using chlorine indicator strips.

2. Trial group: Intra Hydrocare
a) Two screw chillers operated with 50 ppm Intra Hydrocare (ultra-stabilized hydrogen peroxide formulation).
b) The solution was dosed using a Dosatron venturi injector (dilution ratio 1:256) to ensure precise flow-proportional dosing.
c) Hydrogen peroxide concentration in the chiller water was verified using validated H2O2 test strips.
All chillers operated under identical process conditions. Carcasses underwent post-evisceration chilling for 55 minutes at 4°C (corrected from the earlier 45-minute estimate).

Sampling strategy: Sampling was performed weekly, generating 12 sampling events per chiller group over the study period. Samples were collected from:
a) Chiller inlet water
b) Chiller outlet water
c) Chiller surfaces (food-contact and non-contact)
d) Carcasses (post-chill rinse samples)
All sampling followed ISO/HACCP-aligned aseptic procedures.

Microbiological and Hygiene Assessments
1. Total Plate Count (TPC)
a) Swab samples from chiller surfaces and water were plated on Plate Count Agar (PCA).
b) Incubation: 30°C for 48 hours.
c) Carcass microbial loads were enumerated using the ISO 4833 standard rinse-and-plate method.

Figure 1: Representative pictures of the sampling sites
2. Biofilm assessment: Biofilm presence and surface hygiene were evaluated using ATP bioluminescence (Merck MVP ICON system), reported as relative light units (RLU). High RLU values indicated persistent organic load or biofilm activity.

Product Quality and Sensory Evaluation
1. Sensory attributes: A trained internal panel evaluated carcasses for colour, odour and taste, surface appearance. NaOCl-related off-odours, chlorinous notes, or bleaching were noted when present.
2. Chemical residue assessment: Chicken samples were screened for detectable oxidant residues at the end of the chilling process to compare:
– Chlorine residuals (NaOCl group)
– H2O2 residual absence (expected for Intra Hydrocare, decomposing into water + oxygen)
Operator safety assessment: Observations were recorded regarding operator comfort, PPE compliance, and chemical exposure effects.
– NaOCl exposure frequently caused eye irritation, bleaching of clothing, and harsh odour.
– Intra Hydrocare demonstrated no irritation, no corrosive effects, and better operator acceptability, although standard PPE was maintained as per plant protocols.
Compliance and ethical considerations: All activities adhered to established HACCP, Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP), and routine plant safety protocols. No pathogen-specific testing (e.g., Salmonella, Campylobacter) was undertaken as the focus was on indicator microbial load, hygiene markers, and operational performance.

Results
The comparative evaluation demonstrated that Intra Hydrocare consistently outperformed sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) across all assessed parameters, including microbial reduction, biofilm control, product quality preservation, and equipment hygiene. A summary of the major findings is presented below.

1. Microbial efficacy
Intra Hydrocare showed substantially superior microbial control in both chiller water and carcass rinses. While NaOCl produced an initial drop in microbial load, its efficacy diminished rapidly as water moved through the chiller system, with approximately 50% loss in free chlorine activity by the outlet point. This decline corresponded with higher Total Plate Count (TPC) values at the outlet.

In contrast, Intra Hydrocare maintained stable activity throughout the chilling cycle, resulting in >99.9% overall log reduction across sampling points. ATP bioluminescence measurements further confirmed enhanced sanitation performance, with an 85% reduction in ATP, indicating strong biofilm disruption.

Table 1. Total Plate Count (TPC) in screw chillers

Notes: TPC expressed as CFU/mL for water and CFU/g for carcass rinses. n = 12 sampling events per treatment group.
These results indicate that Intra Hydrocare provided 2–3-fold lower microbial contamination compared with NaOCl, both at the dressed-bird stage and in final goods (FG), demonstrating sustained antimicrobial activity even under high organic load.

2. Biofilm control, scale reduction, and equipment integrity
Significant differences were observed in chiller hygiene and equipment condition:
a) Biofilm disruption: Intra Hydrocare effectively penetrated and destabilized biofilm layers, reflected in markedly lower ATP values.
b) Surface hygiene: Surfaces treated with Intra Hydrocare remained visibly cleaner, with less organic residue accumulation.
c) Scale formation: NaOCl-treated chillers exhibited noticeable scaling, mineral deposits, and structural dulling, which can entrap microorganisms and reduce sanitation efficiency.
d) Equipment protection: Intra Hydrocare’s non-corrosive nature prevented metal surface degradation and eliminated scaling, reducing the need for frequent maintenance.
Overall, Intra Hydrocare improved operational efficiency, minimized downtime related to cleaning, and contributed to extending equipment service life.

Discussion
The findings of this field trial demonstrate that Intra Hydrocare provides superior sanitation performance compared with sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) in poultry screw chillers. The stabilized hydrogen peroxide formulation used in Intra Hydrocare, i.e., chelated and silver-stabilized, exhibits several mechanistic advantages that directly contribute to its enhanced performance. Its oxidative mode of action functions effectively across a broad pH range (pH 3–8), providing greater stability in the slightly alkaline conditions common in poultry chillers. This contrasts with NaOCl, whose antimicrobial efficacy diminishes rapidly outside acidic-to-neutral pH ranges and is highly susceptible to neutralization by organic matter present in post-evisceration water.

The trial results demonstrated that Intra Hydrocare maintained >99.9% microbial reduction throughout the chilling cycle, while NaOCl showed a steep decline in performance, losing nearly half of its free chlorine activity before reaching the outlet point. This decline directly corresponded with higher Total Plate Count (TPC) values and diminished sanitation consistency. The enhanced biofilm disruption observed with Intra Hydrocare, reflected by an 85% reduction in ATP values, further underscores its efficacy. Biofilms are notorious for harbouring Salmonella, Campylobacter, Listeria, and spoilage organisms; therefore, effective biofilm control is essential for maintaining plant hygiene and reducing persistent contamination.

A notable advantage of Intra Hydrocare lies in its silver-chelated stabilization, which creates oxidative synergy and promotes deeper penetration into biofilm matrices. This capability addresses a critical weakness of NaOCl, which often requires dose escalation (to 100–150 ppm) in real-world settings to overcome organic load and biofilm protection. However, elevated NaOCl dosing frequently causes adverse sensory changes in poultry meat, including chlorinous odours, yellow discoloration, and surface bleaching, leading to quality downgrades or batch rejections. In contrast, Intra Hydrocare delivered robust disinfection at a low, constant 50 ppm, with no detectable impact on odour, taste, colour, or texture.

From an operational perspective, Intra Hydrocare provided significant additional benefits. Its non-corrosive chemistry prevented structural degradation of stainless-steel surfaces, eliminated scale accumulation, and even removed pre-existing mineral deposits. NaOCl, conversely, contributed to scaling and surface dulling, increasing equipment maintenance burdens. These hygiene and equipment advantages align with sustainability and quality certification goals, including organic production standards (USDA NOP, EU Organic) and NSF/ANSI 60 compliance.

Operator safety was another area where Intra Hydrocare exhibited clear superiority. NaOCl exposure is well-documented to cause eye irritation, respiratory discomfort, and bleaching of clothing, all of which were reported by plant operators. Intra Hydrocare, being residue-free and odourless, eliminated these hazards while still requiring standard PPE under HACCP protocols.

Collectively, the trial outcomes highlight several tangible plant-level benefits associated with switching to Intra Hydrocare, including, lower microbial contamination pressure, improved biofilm and scale control, enhanced product sensory quality and shelf-life potential, reduced equipment corrosion and maintenance downtime, safer working conditions for operators and alignment with modern sustainability and certification frameworks.

The primary limitations of this study include the higher initial dosing volume required for Intra Hydrocare (although mitigated by dosing efficiency and longer-lasting activity) and the need for broader multi-site validation to confirm scalability across different processing environments. Additionally, pathogen-specific analyses, such as Salmonella or Campylobacter enumeration, were not conducted in this phase, although the substantial reductions in indicator organisms and ATP strongly suggest improvements in overall contamination control.

Conclusion
This investigation affirms Intra Hydrocare as a transformative sanitizing agent for poultry screw chiller operations, delivering superior performance across all critical sanitation dimensions. By consistently outperforming NaOCl in microbial reduction, biofilm disruption, equipment hygiene, and sensory preservation, Intra Hydrocare enhances both food safety and product quality throughout the poultry value chain. Its non-corrosive, residue-free, and operator-safe characteristics position Intra Hydrocare as an ideal disinfectant for modern, certification-driven poultry processing plants. The observed improvements, ranging from lower microbial loads to better shelf-life potential, translate directly into enhanced customer satisfaction and stronger market competitiveness.

Adopting Intra Hydrocare represents a strategic shift toward resilient, sustainable, and high-performance sanitation systems, advancing the dual goals of operational efficiency and public health protection. By embracing such next-generation biocidal technologies, poultry processors can ensure safer workplaces, superior consumer experiences, and a robust compliance posture in increasingly demanding regulatory and retail environments.

References
Alvarez-Ordóñez, A., Coughlan, L.M., Briandet, R. and Cotter, P.D., 2019. Biofilms in food processing environments: challenges and opportunities. Annual Review of Food Science and Technology, 10(1), pp.173-195.
Amiri, F., Mesquita, M.M. and Andrews, S.A., 2010. Disinfection effectiveness of organic chloramines, investigating the effect of pH. water research, 44(3), pp.845-853.
Agnello et al. Published: June 2012 Journal: Journal of Food Science (Vol. 77, Issue 6, pp. M296-M302)
Buncic, S. & Sofos, J.N., 2012. Interventions to control Salmonella contamination during poultry, cattle and pig slaughter. Food Research International, 45(2), pp.641–655.
EFSA, 2024. European Food Safety Authority. The European Union One Health 2023 Zoonoses Report. (Weblink: https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/9106)
Gretchen Marlene Nagel Published: August 2012 Source: Auburn University Electronic Theses and Dissertations (M.S. Thesis, Department of Poultry Science)
Hurlbut et al. Published: 1983 Journal: Poultry Science (Vol. 62, Issue 7, pp. 1392-1397)
Kim, J.M., Zhang, B.Z. and Park, J.M., 2023. Comparison of sanitization efficacy of sodium hypochlorite and peroxyacetic acid used as disinfectants in poultry food processing plants. Food Control, 152, p.109865.
Kumar et al. Published: September 2023 Journal: The Pharma Innovation Journal (Vol. 12, Issue 9S, Part E, pp. 206-255)
Na et al. : The Effect of Washing and Packaging on the Quality of the Breast Meat from Old Hen
Scallan, E. et al., 2011. Foodborne illness acquired in the United States—major pathogens. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 17(1), pp.7–15.
Stearns, R., Freshour, A. and Shen, C., 2022. Literature review for applying peroxyacetic acid and/or hydrogen peroxide to control foodborne pathogens on food products. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research, 10, p.100442.
Waters, B.W. and Hung, Y.C., 2014. The effect of organic loads on stability of various chlorine-based sanitisers. International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 49(3), pp.867-875.

MS-associated EAA has a direct influence on income and biosecurity expenses because it increases cracked and degraded eggs, increases labour costs for sorting and cleanup and decreases hatchability through higher embryonic mortality when shell integrity is compromised. EAA manifests as irregularities at the egg’s apex, including thinning, increased translucency and susceptibility to cracks. These defects lead to increased egg breakage and spoilage, directly leading to degrading egg quality and marketability.

Etiology and Transmission:
Mycoplasma synoviae, belongs to the Mycoplasmataceae family and is fastidious about its culture conditions as it requires serum and NAD on modified Frey media. The pathogenicity of strains varies due to immune evasion, adhesins, sialidase activity, nitric oxide generation and antigenic diversity.

Fig. 1. Transmission of M. Synoviae
The host range of the MS infection includes chickens, turkeys, ducks, geese, guinea fowl, pheasants, quail and psittacines. Transmission occurs via both vertical and horizontal route. Vertical transmission takes place through transovarian infection, leading to early chick exposure, while horizontal transmission occurs via aerosol spread, respiratory secretions, fomites and human activity. Once introduced, the infection tends to persist, as infected flocks become lifelong carriers. Multi-age layer systems further support its persistence and contribute to episodic clinical outbreaks.

Pathogenesis:
M. synoviae primarily enters the host through the respiratory tract, with the upper respiratory mucosa serving as the initial site of colonization. With the help of specialized surface proteins and adhesions the organism attaches to the epithelial cells which help it to evade mucociliary clearance. From the respiratory tract, it can spread locally, causing tracheitis, airsacculitis and respiratory distress. In some birds, the pathogen disseminates via bacteraemia, reaching synovial membranes and joints, where it induces inflammation. This leads to synovitis, characterized by swelling, pain and lameness, often accompanied by exudation of yellowish synovial fluid. The organism may also localize in the tendon sheaths and bursae, producing tenosynovitis. Co-infections with other respiratory pathogens (e.g., E. coli, NDV and IBV) exacerbate disease severity. Chronic infections are common and affected birds may become carriers, serving as reservoirs for flock-to-flock transmission.

Clinical Signs:
Mycoplasma synoviae most commonly causes subclinical upper respiratory infections or infectious synovitis and tenosynovitis, while in layers it is also associated with eggshell apex abnormality (EAA) syndrome, characterized by thin, rough, translucent shell apices and intermittent production loss (Feberwee et al., 2009). The clinical expression of the disease is often expressed by stress and co-infections with pathogens such as infectious bronchitis virus (IBV), Newcastle disease virus (NDV) and Escherichia coli (Lockaby et al., 1998).

Fig.2. Dull, depressed hen, Inflammation of foot pad, hock joint and cavity filled with exudates
Affected birds may show mild respiratory involvement, including slight tracheal rales and sinusitis which are more evident under poor air quality or concurrent respiratory infections. The musculoskeletal form is marked by lameness, reluctance to walk, swelling of the hock joint, wing joints and footpads with exudative tenosynovitis of tendon sheaths and sternal bursitis. In systemic or severe cases, signs include depression, inappetence, ruffled feathers, weight loss and pale to cyanotic head parts, with occasional vasculitis and keel bursitis. Morbidity typically ranges from low to moderate, while mortality is generally low but may increase in the presence of secondary bacterial infections, wet litter, cold stress and immunosuppression.

Post Mortem Lesions:
– Respiratory tract:
– Mild to moderate airsacculitis with thickening, opacity and presence of turbid or caseous exudate.
– Mucoid tracheitis and sinusitis (especially when complicated by co-infections).
– Joints and musculoskeletal system:
– Synovitis: Swollen joints (particularly hock, wing and foot joints) with accumulation of yellow to serofibrinous exudate.
– Tenosynovitis: Inflamed tendon sheaths filled with exudate.
– Sternal bursitis (breast blisters) with fibrinous to caseous material.
– Systemic involvement:
– Generalized fibrinous polyserositis in some cases, especially with secondary E. coli infection.
– Emaciation and poor body condition due to chronic disease.
– Eggshell apex abnormality (in layers):
No specific gross lesion in reproductive tract, but post-mortem examination may reveal rough, thin and translucent apices of eggshells in affected flocks.

– Diagnosis:
Diagnosis of MS relies on combination of clinical observation, serology, microbiology and molecular techniques. Observation of respiratory signs such as sneezing, coughing and nasal discharge, along with joint or tendon swelling indicative of synovitis or tenosynovitis and specially in layers, eggshell apex abnormalities like thin, rough or translucent apexes can be observed.
However, clinical signs alone are not definitive, as they can overlap with other infections like NDV, IBV or E. coli.

Serological tests, including ELISA, rapid plate agglutination (RPA) and hemagglutination inhibition (HI), are useful for flock-level monitoring, though maternal antibodies and past exposure can complicate interpretation. Microbiological isolation from choanal or tracheal swabs and synovial fluid using specialized media allows definitive identification of MS, but the process is slow and prone to contamination. Molecular methods such as PCR and real-time PCR offer rapid, sensitive and specific detection of MS DNA, even at low bacterial loads. For accurate diagnosis, a combination of clinical assessment, serology and molecular confirmation is recommended, especially in flocks showing respiratory disease, joint swelling, or eggshell defects.

Treatment
Along with careful use of antibiotics, proper management practices and vaccination strategies are very important in Mycoplasma synoviae management. Treatment typically relies on antimicrobials such as tylosin, tiamulin, doxycycline or enrofloxacin, which can reduce bacterial load and clinical signs, but complete eradication is difficult due to intracellular persistence. Widespread and indiscriminate antibiotic use has led to antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in MS strains because of these challenges, thus, vaccination plays a central role in flock protection, lower bacterial shedding and prevent eggshell apex abnormalities in layers.

Prevention and Control:
Prevention focuses on biosecurity measures, including sourcing MS-free breeders, controlling movement of personnel and equipment and minimizing stressors that predispose birds to infection. Integrated control combining vaccination, strict biosecurity, monitoring via serology or PCR and responsible antimicrobial use is essential to minimize economic losses, maintain flock health and reduce the risk of AMR development. Thus vaccination, combined with good biosecurity and management practices can control MS spread, minimizing antibiotic reliance and maintaining flock productivity.

Stallen South Asia Pvt Ltd is offering a unique inactivated vaccine MS-VAC particularly against Mycoplasma synoviae.
Key Features of MS-VAC:
– The Only Vaccine Made from highly immunogenic strains of Mycoplasma synoviae
– High titre (1010 CFU)
– Oil adjuvant
– High immunogenicity.
– High safety, effective protection and field compatibility

Duration of immunity in MS-VAC

Fig. 5 Duration of immunity in MS-VAC (3 weeks after challenging with virulent MS)
MS-VAC is a vaccine produced from highly immunogenic strains of Mycoplasma synoviae. The culture is inactivated and emulsified in light mineral oil, to ensure a high degree of protection after first vaccination, however the immunity is strongest and long lasting after second inoculation.
– Clinical observation of eggs laid, in vaccinated and non vaccinated commercial hens, after infection by field MS.

Field efficacy of MS-VAC against eggshell apex abnormalities (EAA):

A significantly lower (p=0,000) percentage of EAA affected eggs was observed in group 1 than in groups 2 and 3 (statistically significant difference for p<0.001).
Hence, MS-VAC proved to be effective in protecting commercial hens from EAA, significantly more than the competitiors, in farms infected with MS.

References are available on request

Dr. Nilay Deshpande1, Dr. Saurabh Mane2
1PhD Poultry Science, ICAR-Directorate of Poultry Research, Hyderabad
1MVSc Poultry Science, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izzatnagar

Lipids represent one of poultry biology’s greatest paradoxes — simultaneously essential for optimal productivity and catastrophically dangerous when metabolism dysregulates. Modern chicken strains, refined through decades of genetic selection for explosive growth and extraordinary productivity, possess lipid metabolic machinery operating at remarkable efficiency. Yet this very efficiency, coupled with the metabolic stress of high-density production, creates a precarious system vulnerable to dysregulation. Understanding how chickens process dietary lipids—and critically, what happens when this process fails—is fundamental to contemporary poultry science. Lipids contribute over twice the energy per gram compared to proteins or carbohydrates, provide essential polyunsaturated fatty acids (omega-3 and omega-6) vital for immune competence and reproduction, and serve as carriers for fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K. Yet when lipid metabolism spirals out of control, the consequences are severe: fatty liver syndrome, fatty liver haemorrhagic syndrome (FLHS), fatty liver kidney syndrome (FLKS), and hepatitis collectively represent one of the most significant challenges in modern poultry production.

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From Ingestion to Hepatic Processing: The Initial Lipid Journey
The lipid metabolic odyssey begins in the gastrointestinal tract. Dietary triglycerides, the predominant lipid form in poultry feeds, undergo enzymatic hydrolysis by pancreatic lipase in the small intestine, yielding monoglycerides and free fatty acids. Bile acids emulsify these hydrophobic molecules, facilitating their incorporation into micelles that traverse the intestinal epithelium with impressive efficiency—typically 85-90% digestibility. Once absorbed, enterocytes re-esterify these components into triglycerides and package them into protomicrons— lipoprotein particles analogous to mammalian chylomicrons. These protomicrons enter the portal circulation, delivering absorbed lipids directly to the hepatocyte, establishing the liver as the metabolic epicentre determining the fate of dietary lipids: oxidation for energy, incorporation into structural membranes, or re-export to peripheral tissues. The composition of dietary lipid sources profoundly influences downstream metabolic consequences. Plant oils (soybean, sunflower, canola) provide predominantly linoleic acid (omega-6 PUFA) and oleic acid (MUFA), while animal fats contribute greater quantities of saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids.

The omega-3 to omega-6 ratio fundamentally shapes the lipid mediator profile—excessive omega-6 without compensatory omega-3 supplementation shifts the lipid-derived inflammatory mediator balance toward pro-inflammatory species, predisposing to metabolic dysfunction. Critically, chickens cannot synthesize linolenic acid, creating an absolute dietary requirement for this omega-3 PUFA.

Hepatic Synthesis and Export: The Metabolic Bottleneck
The liver functions simultaneously as processor of absorbed lipids and de novo fatty acid synthetic factory. In laying hens, the hepatic lipogenic capacity is extraordinary— synthesizing sufficient triglycerides to support daily yolk deposition, where lipids constitute approximately 33% of yolk mass by weight. This synthetic machinery operates through acetyl-CoA carboxylase and fatty acid synthase, generating novel fatty acids from carbon skeletons derived from dietary carbohydrates or amino acids. These newly synthesized lipids, together with absorbed dietary fatty acids, must be exported from hepatocytes to peripheral tissues —predominantly through very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) particles and, in laying hens, through vitellogenin-mediated transport to the ovary.

The efficiency of hepatic lipid export fundamentally depends upon apolipoprotein synthesis, particularly apolipoprotein B (apoB), which serves as the structural scaffold of VLDL particles. This apoB synthesis, in turn, requires abundant phospholipid availability, which depends on choline—a nutrient that must be provided dietarily or synthesized through dietary methionine via methylation reactions. The lipotropic hypothesis elegantly explains why supplemental choline, methionine, and betaine mitigate fatty liver development: these nutrients are not direct energy sources but rather essential cofactors enabling the synthetic machinery supporting VLDL assembly and hepatic lipid export. When lipotropic substances become limiting, the hepatocyte becomes an anatomical traffic jam: lipids accumulate internally faster than export machinery can mobilize them peripherally, creating the pathological lipid accumulation characteristic of fatty liver.
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When Export Fails: Pathophysiology of Fatty Liver and FLHS
Hepatic steatosis—excessive hepatic triglyceride accumulation—arises when hepatocyte lipid uptake and synthesis exceed oxidation and export capacity. In laying hens, this dysregulation commonly emerges from the synergistic dysfunction of multiple regulatory pathways. High-energy or high-fat diets, particularly those rich in saturated animal fats, overwhelm export capacity through sheer substrate excess. Simultaneously, inadequate lipotropic nutrient provision cripples VLDL assembly. The gene regulatory landscape becomes progressively dysregulated: the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARα and PPARγ), which normally enhance fatty acid oxidation and promote metabolic flexibility, show reduced hepatic expression, while sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1 (SREBP1), a master transcription factor governing lipogenic enzyme expression, becomes hyperactivated. The consequence is a metabolic phenotype characterized by relentless lipogenesis coupled with suppressed lipolysis.
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Fatty liver hemorrhagic syndrome represents the catastrophic progression of unchecked hepatic steatosis. Beyond simple triglyceride accumulation, FLHS involves severe impairment of VLDL secretion accompanied by oxidative stress, hepatocellular ballooning, and inflammatory cell infiltration. The accumulated lipids generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) as mitochondria become overwhelmed processing fatty acid substrates through β-oxidation. The hepatocellular accumulation of lipid droplets physically displaces functional hepatocytes, reducing synthetic capacity for essential proteins (albumin, clotting factors, cytochromes P450) and impairing detoxification function. Bile acid synthesis and signaling become dysregulated, further compromising lipid export. Ultimately, hepatic capillary rupture causes hemorrhage, often precipitating sudden mortality during capture or handling.
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FLHS epidemiology reveals particularly severe disease manifestations in caged laying hens during peak productivity—the combination of extreme hepatic lipogenic demand, minimal physical activity reducing fatty acid oxidation, and often suboptimal nutritional management creates a metabolic catastrophe. Prevention requires aggressive intervention: dietary fat restriction to 3-5%, polyunsaturated fat emphasis (soybean oil 2-3%), omega-3 supplementation (flaxseed or fish oil 0.5-1%), and robust lipotropic provision (choline 1200-1500 ppm, methionine and betaine at NRC-recommended levels). Antioxidant fortification with vitamin E (100+ IU/kg) and selenium (0.3-0.5 ppm) protects hepatocytes from oxidative damage.
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FLKS: The Young Broiler’s Metabolic Crisis
Fatty liver kidney syndrome predominantly affects rapidly-growing broiler chicks (2-6 weeks age), representing a distinct but equally severe lipid metabolism dysregulation. FLKS manifests as simultaneous pathological lipid accumulation in both liver and kidneys, precipitating growth depression, poor feed efficiency, and substantial mortality.
The pathophysiological substrate differs from FLHS: young broilers experience extraordinary anabolic demand for lipids required for cell membrane synthesis and organ development during rapid tissue accretion. The hepatic export system, dependent on lipotropic nutrient availability and coordinated gene expression, becomes rate-limiting under this intense metabolic stress.
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Choline emerges as the critical intervention point. Deficiency impairs both phospholipid synthesis (necessary for VLDL assembly) and apoB expression, directly constraining VLDL particle formation. The resulting lipid entrapment in hepatocytes, combined with dysregulated lipid transport to peripheral tissues, precipitates renal lipid accumulation through mechanisms not yet fully elucidated—potentially involving impaired renal lipid oxidation capacity or inflammatory responses to elevated circulating lipid levels. Management requires elevated choline provision (800-1200 ppm), particularly in starter diets, combined with polyunsaturated fat inclusion (soybean, sunflower oils 3-5%) and comprehensive antioxidant protection. Notably, excessive dietary energy density paradoxically increases FLKS risk—high carbohydrate-based energy triggers amplified de novo hepatic lipogenesis, overwhelming export capacity.
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Hepatitis and Metabolic Dysfunction: Inflammation Disrupts Lipid Homeostasis
Hepatitis—whether triggered virally, bacterially, toxically, or metabolically—fundamentally disrupts lipid homeostasis through multiple mechanisms. Hepatocellular inflammation directly impairs VLDL synthesis capacity, causing triglyceride and non-esterified fatty acid accumulation. Oxidative stress accompanying inflammation damages lipid membranes through peroxidation, generating lipid peroxides that perpetuate cellular damage. Heat stress-associated hepatitis particularly dysregulates lipid-related gene expression, specifically reducing PPARα and fatty acid oxidation capacity while maintaining or elevating lipogenic gene expression. The net result is secondary steatosis superimposed upon acute inflammation.
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Dietary management during hepatitis requires omega-3 enrichment (fish oil 1-2%) to support synthesis of pro-resolving lipid mediators (lipoxins, resolvins, protectins) that actively terminate inflammation. Saturated fat restriction minimizes pro-inflammatory lipid mediator generation. Comprehensive antioxidant support—emphasizing natural vitamin E (80-100 IU/kg), selenium (0.3+ ppm), and potentially additional antioxidants—counters oxidative stress. Identification and elimination of the hepatitis trigger (viral vaccination, bacterial antimicrobials or probiotics, mycotoxin removal) remains paramount.
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Integrated Prevention: Synthesizing Metabolic Knowledge into Practice
Effective prevention of lipid metabolism disorders requires systematic integration of nutritional, environmental, and managerial strategies. Dietary fat inclusion must balance energy requirements against metabolic risk—typically 3-5% for layers, 4-6% for broilers—with stringent prioritization of polyunsaturated plant oils over saturated animal fats. Lipotropic nutrient provision should exceed minimum requirements during stress periods: choline 1200-1500 ppm, methionine and betaine at NRC recommendations or above. Micronutrient fortification with vitamin E (50-100 IU/kg) and selenium (0.3+ ppm) protects against oxidative stress inherent to lipid-intensive metabolism.​
Environmental management—heat stress mitigation through ventilation, optimal stocking densities permitting normal activity, biosecurity preventing stress-inducing pathogens—directly supports metabolic resilience. Feed quality monitoring ensuring absence of rancid fats and mycotoxins prevents additional hepatic burden. Strain-specific considerations recognize that modern high-productivity genetics carry metabolic vulnerabilities requiring targeted nutritional support; consultation with poultry nutritionists familiar with your specific genetic line optimizes intervention strategies.
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Conclusion: Metabolic Excellence Through Informed Management
Lipid metabolism in chickens exemplifies the exquisite complexity underlying productive physiology—a system of extraordinary sophistication vulnerable to dysregulation under contemporary production stresses. The disorders arising from lipid metabolic failure—fatty liver, FLHS, FLKS, hepatitis—represent not arbitrary diseases but rather predictable consequences of pushing metabolism to or beyond biological limits. These conditions remain largely preventable through evidence-based nutritional and management practices informed by mechanistic understanding of underlying pathophysiology. By maintaining optimal dietary lipid balance emphasizing unsaturated sources, providing robust lipotropic and micronutrient support, managing environmental stressors, and employing strain-appropriate protocols, producers can sustain the metabolic machinery enabling both productivity and welfare. The lipid paradox—that lipids are simultaneously essential and potentially catastrophic—demands perpetual vigilance and informed decision-making; the reward is flocks maintaining both exceptional productivity and robust metabolic health.

References are available on request.

In today’s poultry industry, two factors play a decisive role in ensuring profitable, sustainable, and disease-free production:

Water Treatment and Biosecurity.
Together, they safeguard flock health, enhance performance, and reduce dependence on antibiotics.

1. Water Treatment in Poultry
Water is often called the “forgotten nutrient,” yet it is the most critical element in poultry production. Birds consume twice as much water as feed, and any compromise in water quality directly impacts growth, egg production, and immunity.

Key Challenges in Water Quality
– Microbial contamination: Bacteria such as E. coli and Salmonella spread through untreated water.
– Biofilm formation: Organic residues in pipelines harbor pathogens.
– Chemical impurities: High TDS, hardness, iron, or nitrates affect digestion and performance.
– pH imbalance: Acidic or alkaline water reduces feed intake. Water Treatment Practices
– Filtration to remove physical impurities.
– Acidification to maintain pH (5.5–6.5) and inhibit bacterial growth.
– Chlorination / Hydrogen Peroxide / Ozone for disinfection.
– Regular waterline flushing to prevent biofilm buildup.
– Monitoring TDS, hardness, and microbial load routinely.

2. Biosecurity in Poultry
Biosecurity means preventing disease entry and spread on the farm. With rising concerns about Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) and the push toward antibiotic-free production, biosecurity has become more important than ever.

Three Levels of Biosecurity
1. Conceptual Biosecurity – Farm location, distance from other poultry units, controlled entry points.
2. Structural Biosecurity – Physical barriers, fencing, bird-proof sheds, water sanitation system.
3. Operational Biosecurity – Day-to-day practices like disinfection, vaccination, and visitor control.

Practical Biosecurity Measures
– Restrict farm access (only authorized persons allowed).
– Provide footbaths, hand sanitizers, and farm clothing.
– Disinfect vehicles, crates, and equipment before entry.
– Implement rodent and wild bird control programs.
– Maintain strict mortality disposal methods (incineration/composting).
– Regular vaccination and health monitoring.
– Keep detailed farm records for traceability.

3. Water Treatment + Biosecurity = Sustainable Poultry
While water treatment ensures internal health and performance, biosecurity provides external protection from infections. Both are complementary and essential.
– Clean water reduces gut-related diseases like colibacillosis and diarrhoea.
– Biosecurity reduces the risk of respiratory and viral infections.
– Together, they help in antibiotic-free poultry production, improve FCR (Feed Conversion Ratio), enhance bird welfare, and boost farmer profitability.

Water Quality Monitoring & Water-Borne Diseases in Poultry

Diagram shows that, the source of water we need to check, Ph, TDS, COLOUR, BACTERIA & VIRAL LOAD. This water will go to overhead tank & from there it will distribute to different Poultry shed tanks & through pipe & nipple it will available for birds, here we need to monitor the quality of water.

Importance of Water Sanitation in Poultry Production
In modern poultry production, the use of feed additives such as water and feed acidifiers, toxin binders, probiotics, and antibiotic growth promoters (AGPs) is a common recommendation by poultry nutritionists. Farmers are also increasingly incorporating low-cost protein sources like Rice DDGS, Maize DDGS, and Meat Meal (sometimes adulterated with leather powder) to reduce feed costs.

However, ignoring water sanitation remains one of the most critical mistakes in poultry farming. Even with balanced feed formulation and additives, if the water provided to the birds is contaminated, it results in:
• Loose droppings due to microbial contamination.
• Poor nutrient absorption – birds fail to utilize protein, energy, minerals, and vitamins in the diet.
• Increased incidence of diseases such as E. coli infections and Salpingitis.
• Weakened immunity and consequently poor production performance.

In contrast, a farm with proper water sanitation shows remarkable differences. For example, in one of my ideally managed farms, the birds consistently showed dry droppings (“DRY BEAT”), a clear indicator of good gut health and proper nutrient absorption. This success was achieved through:
• Regular water sanitation practices (disinfection, acidification, and monitoring).
• Ensuring feed hygiene along with the use of safe, food-grade raw materials.
• Strict biosecurity and management protocols.

Safe Water Treatment – A Farmer’s Responsibility

Many farmers currently use different chemicals such as chlorine gas, bleaching powder, and sodium hypochlorite for water treatment. They are not safe for poultry or humans. These compounds often leave harmful residues, alter water taste, reduce consumption, and may even add toxic by-products into the water. According to WHO guidelines, only food and pharmaceutical grade salt should be used for drinking water treatment — both for humans and poultry. The safest and globally recommended option is NaDCC (Sodium Dichloroisocyanurate), which ensures:
• Broad spectrum disinfection with very effective bacterial control
• Safe for poultry & human consumption
• No significant change in taste or odour
• Eco-friendly & easy handling
• Stable and longer shelf life compared to other chlorine sources

Using sub-standard chemicals not only compromises poultry performance (loose droppings, poor nutrient absorption, higher
disease load, chlorine toxicity) but also risks human food safety through residues in meat and eggs.
Key Impact: Farmers must understand that safe water treatment is not about the cheapest chemical, but about using WHO- recommended, food & pharma grade NaDCC for long-term health, productivity, and profitability.

Note: Why NaDCC (Food & Pharma Grade) is Always Better.

Among all the available chlorine-base compounds for water sanitation, Food & Pharma grade Sodium Dichloroisocyanurate (NaDCC) is the safest and most effective choice.

• WHO Recommended – Approved for safe drinking water treatment globally.
• Broad Spectrum Effectiveness – Provides strong and stable disinfection (48 hours’ stability).
• Safe for Birds & Humans – No harmful residues, no significant change in taste or odor.
• Eco-Friendly – No toxic by-products or sludge formation.
• Long Shelf Life – Up to 3 years, with easy effervescent tablet formulation.
• Ease of Use – Simple handling, no heavy cylinders or high manpower required.
• Therefore, NaDCC (Food & Pharma Grade) is always better than chlorine gas, bleaching powder, sodium hypochlorite, or halozone for ensuring Zero-Bacteria Water in poultry Farms.

Conclusion
In poultry management, prevention is always better than cure. Poultry farming success is not just about what we feed the birds, but also about the quality of water they drink every single day. Feed can be fortified, sheds can be modernized, but without clean water and strict sanitation, the full genetic potential of the flock can never be realized. Water is the simplest yet most powerful tool to secure healthy birds, higher productivity, and long-term profitability. Water treatment and biosecurity are not costs but investments that return multiple benefits in productivity, profitability, and sustainability.

Abstract
The Indian poultry sector is a cornerstone of the nation’s livestock economy, ensuring nutritional security, livelihood opportunities, and rural empowerment. As India advances towards the vision of Viksit Bharat 2047, strengthening animal health through modern vaccination strategies becomes imperative. Poultry production faces persistent challenges from infectious diseases such as Newcastle Disease, Infectious Bursal Disease, Marek’s Disease, Avian Influenza, and Salmonellosis, which not only cause heavy economic losses but also threaten food safety and trade opportunities. While conventional vaccines have played a pivotal role in disease control, their limitations—such as cold chain dependence, maternal antibody interference, and inadequate protection against evolving strains—demand innovative solutions.

Next-generation vaccine technologies, including recombinant DNA vaccines, vector-based vaccines, immune-complex vaccines, thermostable formulations, and in-ovo delivery systems, are transforming poultry health management. These approaches offer enhanced safety, longer-lasting immunity, and the potential for multivalent protection. Thermostable vaccines and oral or feed-based delivery methods hold special promise for rural and smallholder farmers by overcoming infrastructural constraints. Moreover, advanced vaccines contribute significantly to antimicrobial stewardship by reducing dependence on antibiotics, thereby aligning with the global One Health agenda and mitigating antimicrobial resistance risks.

The pathway to widespread adoption of these technologies requires integrated efforts from policymakers, research institutions, and the private sector. Public-private partnerships, farmer training, and targeted extension services are essential to ensure affordability, accessibility, and farmer compliance. Furthermore, harmonization with international standards will open new avenues for Indian poultry exports.

Over all next-generation poultry vaccines represent more than a disease-prevention tool; they are strategic enablers of sustainable production, food security, and global competitiveness. By embedding these innovations into a national animal health roadmap, India can safeguard its poultry sector and accelerate progress towards the goals of Viksit Bharat.

Poultry Sector and National Vision
The Indian poultry sector has emerged as one of the fastest-growing components of the livestock economy, contributing significantly to nutritional security, rural livelihoods, and national income. With over 6 million tonnes of chicken meat and more than 142 billion eggs produced annually, India ranks among the top poultry producers globally. However, the vision of Viksit Bharat 2047 emphasizes not just growth in numbers, but also sustainability, biosecurity, and resilience against diseases. Poultry flocks face major health threats from viral, bacterial, and parasitic infections, which can severely disrupt productivity. Vaccination is the most cost-effective and scientifically proven method to prevent infectious diseases in poultry. It not only safeguards flock health but also reduces dependency on antibiotics, thereby aligning with global efforts to combat antimicrobial resistance (AMR). In the Indian context, a robust vaccination strategy combined with innovative vaccine technologies is essential to ensure safe, sustainable, and globally competitive poultry production.

Major Poultry Diseases and Need for Vaccination

The Indian poultry industry is vulnerable to several devastating diseases that can wipe out entire flocks if not managed effectively. Newcastle Disease (Ranikhet), Infectious Bursal Disease (IBD or Gumboro), Marek’s Disease, Fowl Pox, Avian Influenza, Mycoplasmosis, Salmonellosis, and Coccidiosis remain primary threats. Outbreaks not only cause direct mortality but also result in poor feed conversion, reduced egg production, stunted growth, and increased veterinary costs. In a sector with narrow profit margins, even small disease outbreaks can push farmers into financial crisis. Vaccination is critical to prevent such losses and ensure predictable production. For example, ND vaccination is universally adopted in India, while IBD and Marek’s vaccines are routinely used in broiler and layer flocks. Vaccination also acts as a barrier against zoonotic diseases like Avian Influenza, which pose risks to human health. Beyond biological protection, vaccines are key to market access, as global trade standards demand disease-free certification. Thus, comprehensive vaccination programs serve as both a production necessity and a policy imperative for India’s poultry sector in its journey towards Viksit Bharat.

Current Vaccination Strategies in India
Presently, the Indian poultry industry relies on a mix of live attenuated, inactivated (killed), and recombinant vaccines. Day-old chicks are often vaccinated at hatcheries, while subsequent doses are administered at farms by trained personnel. Broilers typically receive vaccines against ND, IBD, and Marek’s, while layers undergo longer schedules covering Fowl Pox, Egg Drop Syndrome, and Salmonellosis. Commercial hatcheries have standardized protocols, but backyard and smallholder poultry systems still suffer from low vaccine coverage due to lack of access and awareness. Vaccines are usually delivered through drinking water, eye drops, intramuscular injections, or wing web methods. However, challenges persist in maintaining the cold chain, ensuring correct dosages, and preventing improper administration. Despite these limitations, vaccination coverage in commercial farms has improved significantly, leading to better flock health and reduced antibiotic dependence. Government agencies, private companies, and veterinary universities are working collaboratively to extend these benefits to rural poultry farmers. Standardized vaccination calendars tailored to regional disease prevalence can further improve efficiency. The existing strategies, though effective, need technological upgrades and equitable access to align with India’s aspirations of modern, climate-resilient, and globally integrated poultry production.

Limitations and Challenges of Conventional Vaccines
Despite their proven utility, conventional vaccines face several limitations in the Indian poultry sector. Live vaccines, while highly immunogenic, sometimes revert to virulence or interact with maternal antibodies, reducing their effectiveness. Inactivated vaccines, though safe, require multiple doses and are more expensive. In addition, improper handling—such as exposure to high temperatures during transportation—often compromises vaccine efficacy. A major challenge is the mismatch between circulating field strains and the strains used in commercial vaccines. For example, evolving variants of ND and IBD viruses occasionally bypass existing vaccines, causing outbreaks even in vaccinated flocks. Smallholder and backyard poultry, which form a substantial part of India’s rural economy, often remain unvaccinated due to cost, limited access, and lack of cold chain infrastructure. Moreover, conventional vaccines rarely provide sterilizing immunity, allowing vaccinated birds to shed pathogens silently, which complicates disease eradication efforts. In the backdrop of climate change, rising stocking densities, and globalization of poultry trade, these limitations demand next-generation vaccine solutions. To achieve Viksit Bharat, India must address these challenges by integrating science, technology, and farmer-centric delivery systems in its poultry vaccination programs.

Advances in New Vaccine Technologies
Recent scientific breakthroughs have paved the way for innovative vaccines tailored to modern poultry needs. Recombinant DNA vaccines, vector-based vaccines, immune-complex vaccines, and nanoparticle-based delivery systems are gaining traction. These technologies offer higher safety, broader protection, and longer-lasting immunity compared to traditional vaccines. For instance, recombinant vaccines can target multiple pathogens simultaneously, reducing the need for multiple injections. Immune-complex vaccines help overcome maternal antibody interference, ensuring early chick protection. Thermostable vaccines, currently being developed, can withstand higher temperatures, eliminating the need for stringent cold chains—a boon for rural and remote areas. Moreover, edible vaccines derived from transgenic plants and oral vaccines administered through feed or water provide farmer-friendly alternatives. The integration of nanotechnology has enhanced antigen stability and delivery, improving immune response. These innovations not only improve disease control but also align with sustainable and antibiotic-free poultry production systems. By adopting such advanced technologies, India can strengthen its poultry sector to withstand future disease challenges while ensuring affordability and accessibility for all categories of farmers.

Hatchery-Based and In-Ovo Vaccination

One of the most transformative innovations in poultry vaccination is hatchery-based immunization, particularly in-ovo vaccination. In this method, vaccines are delivered directly into the egg on the 18th day of incubation, before the chick hatches. This ensures early, uniform, and stress-free protection against diseases like Marek’s and ND. Automated in-ovo vaccination systems allow high-throughput immunization with minimal labour, ensuring biosecurity and accuracy. Post-hatch, chicks already possess robust immunity, reducing the risk of early chick mortality. This approach also minimizes handling stress, improving welfare and productivity. For commercial hatcheries in India, in-ovo vaccination holds immense promise in terms of scalability, cost-effectiveness, and alignment with global best practices. Hatchery vaccination of day-old chicks against ND, IBD, and Salmonella is already gaining popularity. As India modernizes its hatchery infrastructure under the Viksit Bharat framework, the integration of in-ovo technologies can revolutionize poultry health management. Expanding these practices to both commercial and rural hatcheries will ensure equitable benefits across the value chain. Thus, hatchery-based vaccination strategies represent a forward-looking step towards resilient poultry farming.

Role in Antibiotic Stewardship and AMR Reduction
The overuse of antibiotics in poultry has been a long-standing concern due to its contribution to antimicrobial resistance (AMR), which poses a global public health threat. Vaccination is a powerful tool in reducing reliance on antibiotics by preventing bacterial infections and associated secondary complications.
For example, vaccines against Salmonella, E. coli, and Mycoplasma significantly reduce the need for antibiotic treatments. In addition, viral vaccines indirectly lower antibiotic usage by reducing co-infections that would otherwise require antimicrobial intervention. India’s poultry sector is under increasing scrutiny from consumers, exporters, and regulators regarding antibiotic residues in meat and eggs. By adopting comprehensive vaccination programs and new-generation vaccines, the industry can move towards antibiotic-free poultry production systems, aligning with international standards. This is particularly crucial as India eyes larger export markets in the Middle East, Africa, and Asia-Pacific. Vaccination-led AMR stewardship is not just a health necessity but also a trade enabler and consumer confidence booster. Thus, vaccines play a pivotal role in aligning India’s poultry industry with the One Health approach and the national goal of Viksit Bharat.

Policy Support and Public-Private Partnerships
The success of vaccination strategies in India depends heavily on supportive policies, infrastructure, and partnerships. Government agencies like the Department of Animal Husbandry, ICAR institutes, and State Veterinary Departments must play a central role in disease surveillance, vaccine research, and farmer training. At the same time, private vaccine manufacturers, integrators, and farmer cooperatives need to collaborate in creating affordable and farmer-friendly solutions. Public-private partnerships (PPP) can accelerate the development of thermostable vaccines, indigenous recombinant vaccines, and scalable hatchery vaccination systems. Subsidies, credit support, and extension services should be provided to smallholder farmers to improve vaccine adoption. Strengthening diagnostic laboratories and surveillance networks will ensure vaccines are updated against circulating strains. Furthermore, India must harmonize its poultry vaccination policies with WOAH (World Organisation for Animal Health) and Codex standards to expand exports. By embedding vaccination strategies into national livestock and poultry development programs, policymakers can ensure that poultry contributes robustly to the nutritional, economic, and employment goals envisioned under Viksit Bharat.

Capacity Building and Farmer Awareness
A robust vaccination strategy is incomplete without farmer participation and awareness. Many disease outbreaks in India are linked to gaps in farmer knowledge about vaccine handling, schedules, and post-vaccination management. Training programs, mobile-based advisory services, and community-based poultry health workers can play an important role in bridging these gaps. Integrating digital tools like AI-driven vaccination calendars, blockchain-based cold chain monitoring, and mobile reminders can improve efficiency and compliance. Educational campaigns in local languages are needed to dispel myths about vaccination, such as misconceptions regarding reduced fertility or productivity. Special emphasis must be placed on women farmers, who play a crucial role in backyard poultry rearing but often lack access to formal veterinary training. Farmer cooperatives, SHGs (Self Help Groups), and FPOs (Farmer Producer Organizations) can act as vehicles for disseminating vaccination services at the grassroots. By building capacity and creating farmer-centric vaccination systems, India can democratize the benefits of new vaccine technologies, ensuring inclusive growth of the poultry sector.

Vaccination Roadmap towards Viksit Bharat
The future of India’s poultry sector lies in its ability to combine productivity with sustainability, resilience, and global competitiveness. Vaccination strategies and new vaccine technologies form the cornerstone of this transformation. From conventional vaccines to recombinant DNA vaccines, in-ovo immunization, thermostable formulations, and nanotechnology-driven innovations, the spectrum of tools available today is wider than ever. However, technology alone is not enough. Equitable access, policy support, capacity building, and farmer participation are equally vital. A national poultry vaccination roadmap aligned with Viksit Bharat 2047 should prioritize:

(I) strengthening surveillance and diagnostics,
(ii) promoting indigenous vaccine R&D,
(iii) scaling hatchery-based immunization,
(iv) supporting smallholder vaccination access, and
(v) integrating vaccination with AMR stewardship.

By embracing these strategies, India can ensure that its poultry sector not only meets the rising domestic demand for safe, affordable protein but also positions itself as a global leader in sustainable poultry production. Vaccination is more than just a disease-control measure; it is a strategic investment in the nation’s food security, public health, and economic prosperity.

By: Dr. Priyanka Kamble, Senior Marketing Manager Huvepharma

Introduction

Newcastle Disease (ND), caused by Avian Paramyxovirus Type-1 (APMV-1), remains one of the most devastating viral infections affecting the poultry industry in India. With high mortality rates, reduced egg production, and severe economic losses, ND poses a constant threat to both small-scale poultry farmers and large commercial producers. Despite advancements in vaccination and biosecurity, the disease continues to challenge the sustainability of India’s poultry sector, which contributes significantly to the nation’s agricultural GDP.

Newcastle Disease: A Persistent Menace

Newcastle Disease is highly contagious, affecting chickens, turkeys, and other avian species. The virus spreads through direct contact, contaminated feed, water, equipment, and even airborne transmission. Clinical signs vary depending on the strain but commonly include:

• Respiratory distress (gasping, coughing, nasal discharge)
• Nervous signs (twisting of the neck, paralysis, tremors)
• Greenish diarrhoea
• Sudden drop in egg production (thin-shelled or shell-less eggs)
• High mortality (up to 100% in unvaccinated flocks)

In India, velogenic strains (highly virulent) are predominant, causing severe outbreaks that cripple poultry operations. (APMV-1 Velogenic NDV is responsible for Velogenic Viscerotropic ND (VVND) outbreaks in India).

Economic Impact on the Indian Poultry Industry

India is the third-largest egg producer and fifth-largest poultry meat producer globally, The poultry sector in India, valued at more than USD 28 billion in 2021-22, has been a vital component of the country’s agriculture and food processing industry. Newcastle Disease disrupts this growth through:

1. Direct Losses Due to Mortality & Culling

• Unvaccinated or poorly managed flocks face mortality rates of 80-100%, leading to massive financial losses.
• Government-mandated culling during outbreaks further exacerbates losses.

2. Reduced Egg & Meat Production

• Layers: A single ND outbreak can cause a 20–50% drop in egg productionand reduce egg quality, with recovery taking weeks.

• Broilers: Cause severe mortality. Infected birds suffer stunted growth, leading to lower market weights and downgrading at processing plants.

3. Increased Vaccination & Treatment Costs

• Farmers must invest in regular vaccination schedules (Live & Inactivated ND vaccines), adding to operational costs.
• Secondary bacterial infections (E. coli, Mycoplasma) increase antibiotic usage, raising concerns over antimicrobial resistance (AMR).

4. Trade Restrictions & Market Losses

• ND outbreaks lead to quarantine zones, restricting movement of poultry and products.
• Export markets (Middle East, Southeast Asia) impose bans on Indian poultry products during outbreaks, causing revenue losses.

5. Impact on Small & Marginal Farmers

• Over 70% of Indian poultry farmers are small-scale, lacking resources for strict biosecurity.
• A single ND outbreak can bankrupt small farmers, pushing them out of the industry.

Strategies to Combat Newcastle Disease

1. Strict Vaccination Protocols
2. Enhanced Biosecurity Measures

• Farm-level hygiene: Disinfection of footwear, vehicles, equipment.
• Restricted access: Prevent contact with wild birds & other farms.
• All-in-all-out systems: Reduce viral persistence in multi-age flocks.

3. Early Detection & Rapid Response

• Regular serological monitoring (HI tests for antibody titers).
• Rapid reporting of suspected cases to Veterinarians.

4. Proactive Measures for ND Outbreak Prevention

• Compulsory ND vaccination programs in high-risk zones.
• Farmer awareness campaigns on biosecurity best practices.

Conclusion: A Call to Action

Newcastle Disease is not just a health issue—it’s an economic catastrophe for India’s poultry industry. With the sector growing at 8-10% annually, unchecked ND outbreaks disrupt livelihoods and threaten national food security.

The solution lies in:
 Proactive vaccination
 Robust biosecurity
 Farmer education
 Stronger policy enforcement

As veterinarians, researchers, and industry leaders, we must unite to safeguard Indian poultry from Newcastle Disease—ensuring sustainability for farmers and safe, affordable protein for millions.

Dr. Stéphanie Ladirat, R&D Director, NUQO

A recent research program highlights that micro-encapsulation of seaweed and plant extracts can stimulate digestive functions, improve performance, and reduce feed costs, addressing current egg industry needs.

The egg industry grapples with key challenges in optimizing nutrition and profitability for laying hens. One significant hurdle involves efficiently producing eggs while maintaining bird health and well-being. Sustainable practices, such as efficient waste management and reducing the environmental footprint, are essential to address growing concerns about the environmental impact of egg production. To tackle these issues and enhance the performance of laying hens, strategies have emerged. These include formulating balanced diets with alternative protein and energy sources, exploring feed additives like enzymes, microbials, phytogenics, and seaweed extracts. Enzymes, such as phytase, improve nutrient utilization, while probiotics and prebiotics support gut health, enhancing feed conversion and disease resistance. Natural phytogenics provide antioxidants, affect the microflora profile, and improve digestive functions, ultimately leading to increased egg production and improved egg quality. Seaweed bioactives (so called-phycogenics), contribute as well to better gut health of animals. These strategies address challenges in egg production and meet consumer expectations for high-quality, nutritious eggs, all while promoting sustainable and eco-friendly practices.

The latest benchmark for phytogenic feed additives
Lately, a feed additives company has introduced an innovative product, NUQO©NEX (NQ), comprising metabolites sourced from both plants and algae (referred to as phytogenic and phycogenic, originating from the Greek words ‘phytos’ for plant and ‘phycos’ for algae). These metabolites are shielded by a unique micro-encapsulation technology. The utilization of micro-encapsulation has become imperative in the realm of phytogenic feed additives to mitigate the volatility of natural compounds. While the term ‘encapsulation’ is increasingly generic, it is crucial to discern authentic technology that not only safeguards but also effectively releases active ingredients, setting it apart from rudimentary methods like silica absorption or light-agglomeration, which may suffice for various compounds but fall short in preserving delicate phytogenics like essential oils.

It is of utmost importance to delve into the manufacturing technology underpinning each product, rather than solely relying on surface-level claims. With its notably high concentration of active components and remarkable stability, this novel solution assures a precise release in the digestive tract and offers a cost-effective dosage unlike any other currently available. This technology has been meticulously developed to optimize poultry performance and can serve as an alternative growth promoter or a means to enhance feed conversion ratios and overall performance, ultimately resulting in an improved return on investment for poultry operations.

Numerous trials have validated the effectiveness of this technology in enhancing the performance of laying hens across diverse contexts and geographic regions. Concurrently, scientists have conducted assessments to gauge the technology’s precise influence on feed digestibility. This research aims to provide formulators and nutritionists with greater flexibility in their decision-making processes.

Enhancing Feed Digestibility in poultry
In a recent study conducted at the University of Berlin in Germany, researchers undertook a comparative analysis of four treatments: a negative control, two commercial products incorporating phytogenics (referred to as P1 & P2), and a novel technology, NUQO©NEX (NQ). The findings revealed that the NQ treatment not only enhanced the digestibility of nutrients like crude fat, crude protein, and starch but also contributed to increased mineral digestibility, including crude ash, calcium, and phosphorus, when compared to the negative control. The other two solutions also improved the digestibility of certain nutrients and minerals but to a lesser extent than NQ. Notably, the NQ treatment exhibited the most pronounced effects on nutrient and mineral digestibility, resulting in the highest overall performance improvement. In sum, the NQ treatment demonstrated enhanced feed digestibility, ultimately leading to improved performance, in contrast to conventional products relying on phytogenics. This underlines the significance of the formulation’s composition (comprising both phytogenics and phycogenics) and the influence of manufacturing technology (micro-encapsulation) on product stability and release within the digestive system.

Concrete impact on feed costs with a conservative matrix value
The NQ technology underwent extensive testing in various global regions, including Asia, Europe, and Latin America, to evaluate its impact on the performance of laying hens. Additionally, to offer maximum flexibility to nutritionists and formulators, diverse scenarios were examined, involving the application of feed additives either “on top” of the formulation or using a “matrix value” approach, allowing adjustments to the feed formulation to reduce costs by decreasing energy and protein content. Two recent trials were conducted at Kasetsart University in Thailand under the guidance of Professor Yuwares.

In an experiment, the NQ technology was used with a “matrix value” at 75 ppm. Three treatments were tested: 1) an initial control diet [C0], 2) a second treatment that consisted of the same control diet but with reduced energy and protein content (-23 kcal/-0.25% dig.Prot) [NC], and finally, 3) a third treatment was given to animals based on the control diet, with reduced energy and protein content (-23 kcal/-0.25% dig.Prot) along with the NQ technology at 75 ppm [NC+NQ]. In this case as well, the experiment consistently delivered expected results. Applying a matrix to the control diet (NC) adversely affected laying percentage, egg mass, and FCR but did not alter feed intake when compared to the control. Applying NQ technology with a matrix value (NC+NEX) helped to restore layer performance, with the laying percentage even slightly surpassing that of CO.

Beyond performance indicators, additional assessments highlighted the influence of the NQ technology. Researchers observed a decrease in both fatty liver scores and occurrences. Moreover, there was an enhancement in eggshell thickness, whether the technology was used in a diet, with or without a matrix value.

Opt for the latest, science-backed technology to safeguard profits
In the evolving landscape of the egg industry, the NQ technology emerges as a revolutionary solution. By seamlessly combining exclusive ingredients sourced from both plants and algae, it offers a distinctive advantage. What sets this technology apart is its genuine micro-encapsulation method, ensuring the safe and efficient release of active components. Through extensive trials, the remarkable effects on laying hens’ performance, improved feed digestibility, enhanced egg quality, and notable reduction in costs have been demonstrated. NQ technology is not just one more phytogenic feed additive, but rather the most advanced nature-based technology for optimizing laying hens’ performance at competitive cost. It serves as a cornerstone for the future of egg production, delivering unparalleled advantages to producers and championing healthier, more sustainable laying hens’ operations.

Lode Nollet, Global Product Manager Poultry Enzymes, Huvepharma

Nutritional strategies to support the production of high quality, low cost and safe animal products are a must nowadays. The relationships between health, nutrition, welfare, and environment need to be considered. In poultry production, increasing feed costs are imposing pressure on the profitability of the farmer, so nutritionists seek to reduce feed costs whilst maintaining animal performance and gut health. Several strategies, with tangible tools to support this, are discussed in this article.

CONTROLLING COCCIDIOSIS

Coccidiosis, caused by protozoan parasites of the genus Eimeria, is one of the most widespread and difficult to manage poultry diseases, resulting in considerable economic losses in the broiler industry. Insufficient or inadequate control of coccidiosis will result in gut health damage and provide a pathway for other pathogens to proliferate.

For instance, suboptimal coccidiosis control combined with a high amount of undigested protein will create an ideal situation for the proliferation of Clostridia spp. Birds suffering from clinical coccidiosis will show typical signs like diarrhoea, bloody droppings, increased mortality, decreased feed intake and impaired performance.

Inadequate control of coccidiosis leads to impaired growth and feed conversion ratio, without the presence of evident clinical signs. This is subclinical coccidiosis.

Intensive methods of production of poultry favour the reproduction of Eimeria. Consequently, coccidiosis is a continuing problem requiring constant attention and, in the case of broilers, a need for continuous supplementation with anticoccidial drugs or coccidiosis vaccines, in addition to in-feed anticoccidials. Coccidiosis control combined with a good monitoring programme will be the base of any gut health management programme.

IMPROVING FEED DIGESTIBILITY

Improving digestibility of the feed can be achieved by selecting highly digestible feedstuffs. However, this will increase the feed price. The improvement of the digestibility of feed by using enzymes able to degrade Non-Starch Polysaccharides (the so-called NSPases) will not only lead to lowering the feed cost at formulation, but also exert a positive effect on the bird’s gut health.

The NSPases contain xylanase or xylanase-based enzymatic complexes, and their mode of action includes the hydrolysis of soluble arabinoxylans, which minimises intestinal viscosity, preventing the overgrowth of microflora and thereby reduces gut health disorders.

Together with the efficient reduction in viscosity, NSPases will also hydrolyse insoluble arabinoxylans. This action will unlock nutrients (mainly starch and proteins) which are trapped in the cell walls of the vegetable feed ingredients (the so called ‘cage effect’ of insoluble fibres).

Using the correct NSPase leads to improved digestibility of starch and protein. The latter is of particular importance as high levels of undigested protein in the (last) part of the intestine is a breeding ground for protein-loving pathogens like Clostridium spp, causing necrotic enteritis.

The breakdown of arabinoxylans by NSPase also yields arabino- oligosaccharides (AXOS) which are known to be fermented by the microflora in the lower part of the intestine to butyrate, which is a major energy source for villi regeneration allowing good gut health status.

Phytases have been shown not only to break down phytate to release phosphorus, but by doing so, to also destroy the anti-nutritional factor phytate.

This not only leads to a reduction of endogenous protein losses, but also liberates protein and amino acids which are complexed by phytate, enhancing their digestibility.

SUPPORTING THE MICROBIOTA

The relationship between a healthy gut and the animal’s microbiota is undeniable. As part of the holistic approach, the inclusion of probiotics in the nutritional programme offers a way of supporting gut health from a microbial perspective.

The mode of action of probiotics is usually multifactorial, including (but not limited to) the production of beneficial metabolites or the direct competition with unwanted bacteria. As a result, probiotics often help to balance the present microbiota and improve its robustness, supporting general gut health in the process. Probiotics can be incorporated into the feed or drinking water, depending on the strain and formulation used.

Although there are many commercial options available, the preferred product of choice should be based on a single unique strain, capable of forming spores and with a proven and researched mode of action. Such probiotics increase the ease of use, whilst ensuring product efficacy.

Good examples are B-Act®, containing viable spores of Bacillus licheniformis, based on Clostridium butyricum. Probiotics allow producers to support their animals’ gut health efficiently, setting them up for a successful production period from start to finish.

CONCLUSION

Gut health management is of paramount importance to the profitability of poultry farming. The strategy behind managing optimal gut health should contain a combination of the most important control tools on the market available today: an adequate and well thought-through coccidiosis control programme, combined with an NSP enzyme and a phytase, and topped off by a well-functioning probiotic.

To know more, please contact Huvepharma technical team

Huvepharma SEA (Pune) Pvt. Ltd.

42, ‘ Haridwar’, Road 2 A/B, Kalyani Nagar, Pune 411006 Customer Care Contact: +91 20 2665 4193

Email: salesindia@huvepharma.com Website: www.huvepharma.com

Breathing Trouble: A Glimpse into the World of CRD in Poultry
India ranks second globally in egg production and fifth in poultry meat production. The Indian poultry market, despite being one of the largest globally, remains a developing sector due to its fragmented infrastructure, inconsistent biosecurity standards, and varying degrees of modernization across regions.

A significant portion of poultry production still relies on open housing systems, limited automation, and minimal veterinary oversight, especially among smallholder and backyard farmers. These conditions foster high disease prevalence, as poor sanitation, overcrowding, and lack of structured vaccination programs create ideal environments for the spread of infectious agents like Mycoplasma gallisepticum, E. coli, and coccidia. Consequently, the industry faces substantial economic losses through reduced productivity, higher mortality, increased medication costs, and trade restrictions. Bridging the gap between traditional practices and scientific poultry management is critical for improving flock health and sustaining long-term growth.

One Breath at a Time: Poultry Farmers Battle Chronic Respiratory Disease

Before any effective fight against Chronic Respiratory Disease (CRD) can begin, the poultry industry must first understand the enemy it faces. CRD is not just another seasonal illness—it’s a complex, persistent infection primarily caused by Mycoplasma gallisepticum, capable of silently spreading through flocks and leaving devastating economic consequences in its wake. Its symptoms often mimic those of other respiratory illnesses, making early detection a challenge. Without a clear understanding of its pathogenesis, transmission, and triggers, efforts to control CRD remain reactive and insufficient. Knowledge is the first line of defense—only with education, diagnosis, and structured prevention can farmers hope to break the cycle of recurring outbreaks. The battle against CRD must begin with awareness and be fought with science, vigilance, and unity across the industry.

Unmasking the Culprit: The Hidden Cause of CRD in Poultry

CRD is caused by Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG), a wall-less bacterium that affects the respiratory tract of poultry. Secondary infections with Escherichia coli, Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale, and viral pathogens (NDV, IBV) often exacerbate disease severity.

Silent Spread: How CRD Continues to Lurk in Poultry Farms
CRD in poultry, caused by Mycoplasma gallisepticum, spreads through both horizontal and vertical transmission. Infected birds release the pathogen via respiratory secretions, contaminating air, water, feed, and equipment. Vertical transmission from breeder hens to chicks via eggs further fuels early infection. Recovered birds often remain silent carriers, shedding the organism under stress. This makes CRD hard to eradicate and highlights the need for strong biosecurity, breeder screening, and flock management to control its spread.

How CRD Takes Hold: Understanding the Disease’s Journey in Poultry
The pathogenesis of Chronic Respiratory Disease (CRD) in poultry begins when birds inhale aerosolized Mycoplasma gallisepticum, the primary causative agent. The pathogen adheres to the ciliated epithelial cells lining the upper respiratory tract, disrupting the mucociliary clearance mechanism. This allows the bacteria to colonize and multiply, triggering a chronic inflammatory response that leads to thick mucus secretion, tracheitis, and air-sacculitis. The damaged respiratory lining also becomes highly susceptible to secondary bacterial infections, particularly from E. coli, compounding respiratory distress and systemic illness.

In commercial poultry, stress factors such as poor ventilation, high stocking density, and concurrent viral infections (like IBV or NDV) can further exacerbate disease progression, resulting in reduced growth rates, poor feed conversion, decreased egg production, and increased mortality.

Signs & Symptoms with Postmortem (PM) Findings
CRD in poultry typically presents with a range of respiratory signs that can vary in severity based on age, immune status, and presence of co-infections. Common clinical signs include coughing, sneezing, nasal discharge, tracheal rales, conjunctivitis, reduced feed intake, stunted growth, and a noticeable drop in egg production in layers. Birds may also exhibit open-mouth breathing and watery eyes. In chronic stages, swelling of infraorbital sinuses and air-sacculitis becomes evident. On postmortem examination, the most consistent findings include thickened, cloudy air sacs (airsacculitis), catarrhal to caseous exudate in the trachea and bronchi, perihepatitis, pericarditis, and fibrinous pneumonia. In cases complicated by secondary infections like E. coli, lesions become more severe, showing a classic “CRD complex.”

Integrated Strategy to Fight CRD
An integrated CRD control strategy combines biosecurity, vaccination, early detection, nutritional support, and precision medication.

Preventive Phase: Reducing the Latent Load
Forlutin 10% (Tiamulin 10%) a high-quality feed additive by Stallen South Asia Pvt. Ltd. serves as the cornerstone for preventive management. Administering it to growers between 7 to 14 weeks of age or just before expected stress periods such as vaccination or peak lay helps reduce the latent load of Mycoplasma. This approach prepares the flock by lowering the pathogen load before the birds reach a vulnerable stage.

Outbreak Management: When Clinical Signs Appear
At the onset of clinical signs indicative of Mycoplasmosis, immediate action is required. Stalmicosin (Tilmicosin Phosphate 250mg) oral solution – a high-quality product manufactured by Stallen South Asia Pvt. Ltd. in its own manufacturing facility to ensure the highest Quality standards, administered via drinking water at 15–20 mg/kg body weight, is highly effective due to its deep lung penetration and prolonged action. This should be continued for 3 to 5 days but not exceeded.

Following the Stalmicosin course, a 24–48hour break should be observed before beginning treatment with Forlutin 80% (Tiamulin 80%) water soluble powder. A dosage of 25–50 mg/kg body weight for another 3 to 5 days helps eliminate residual Mycoplasma and prevents recurrence. Integrating these antimicrobials into a scheduled rotation can significantly reduce disease recurrence and resistance development.

Monitoring and Biosecurity: Supporting the Antimicrobial Strategy
Surveillance using PCR and ELISA tests at regular intervals is vital to detect Mycoplasma presence, especially during and after stress periods. Swab sampling and necropsy examinations for lesions such as air sacculitis or swollen joints provide further evidence. Strict biosecurity—enforcing all-in/all-out practices, staff segregation, and regular disinfection using NADCC, quaternary ammonium compounds, or glutaraldehyde—is essential to support the medical interventions.

References
1. Indian Journal of Veterinary Science & Poultry Health, 2023. Comparative Efficacy of Antibiotics in CRD.
2. Practical Poultry Guide, Vol 18, 2024 – Antimicrobial Resistance Trends in Poultry Pathogens.
4. McOrist et al. (2002) – Tilmicosin pharmacokinetics and tissue distribution in avian models.
5. Poultry Science Journal, 2022 – Mycoplasma Control Strategies in South Asia.

Poultry excreta comprises undigested feed protein and uric acid, which microbial enzymes convert to ammonia (NH3). Several litter characteristics, including pH, temperature, oxygen, moisture concentrations, and substrate availability, influence this conversion. The recommended limit for ammonia in a chicken shed is less than 10 ppm, however, up to 25 ppm is not detrimental. Ideally, the relative humidity should range between 50 and 70%. The rainy season, defective foggers, insufficient ventilation, water leaks, and other factors all contribute to increased humidity inside the shed.

Ammonia levels and humidity in poultry houses are interconnected. High relative humidity can exacerbate the adverse effects of high blood ammonia levels in poultry. In humid environments, more NH3 may be dissolved in the air droplets and inhaled into the blood during respiration by birds, consequently increasing the blood ammonia content. When ammonia gas is exposed to moisture, it reacts and forms a corrosive solution called ammonium which causes harm to birds. Additionally, high humidity can hinder the evaporation of moisture from the litter, causing it to retain more ammonia.

Deleterious Effects on Poultry:
1. Respiratory Issues: High levels of ammonia in the poultry house air can cause respiratory problems for the birds. Ammonia gas affects the trachea’s mucosal surface, causing paralysis of cilia, sometimes deciliation of epithelial cells, and causes necrosis of the mucosal epithelium.
2. Foot Lesions: The constant exposure of poultry to ammonia can cause severe foot lesions by causing chemical burns on the foot pads of birds, leading to painful and debilitating footpad dermatitis.
3. Eye Lesions: High concentrations of atmospheric ammonia for a prolonged duration causes irritation, conjunctivitis, and damage to the cornea of the eyes. Swelling and reddening of the eyelids, irritation, reddening of the conjunctiva and nictitating membrane, and partial or complete closure of the eyes are common clinical signs.
4. Reduced performance.

How to prevent it:
Along with farming management like dietary management, stocking density, proper ventilation, house temperature, litter management, etc., other supplements like Phytogenic Feed Additives can be supplemented in a poultry diet. A phytogenic feed additive increases the digestibility of nutrients within the gastrointestinal tract and reduces the gut inflammation caused by stressors.

Thereby may considerably increase the gut integrity of the birds. Phytogenic feed additives also alter gut microflora, minimizing the adverse effect of harmful bacteria on the gut. Less undigested and unabsorbed nutrients will be excreted through faeces from a healthy gut, which means less nitrogen excretion.

STODI, a Standardized Botanical Powder, is crafted with scientifically selected herbs improving the efficiency of feed utilization and overall performance of the birds. In various studies, it has been found that STODI supplementation has significantly reduced litter nitrogen (g/100g of litter) as compared to group without supplementation. STODI maintains the gut integrity and peristaltic movement of the gut which increases time for the protein and other nutrient utilization by the birds. This increased protein utilization leads to reduced excretion reduced excretion of nitrogen which in turn decreases the production of ammonia level in litter. Along with this STODI has shown to improve the gut microbiota level and gut immunity of the birds.

In conclusion, the combined impact of ammonia and humidity in the world of poultry farming underscores the critical importance of maintaining a balanced and controlled environment for the well-being and productivity of the birds. High levels of ammonia in poultry houses can lead to a range of deleterious effects. STODI, a polyherbal formulation has shown to reduce the ammonia level in litter with improved nutrient utilization and gut microbiota balance.